Kids Research Express

Do You Have Leaky Gut Syndrome?

2011-04-24T19:39:00.000-07:00

Do You Have Leaky Gut Syndrome?
by Dr. Leo Galland

Because it is something of a mystery disease that can show itself as a bewildering array of other conditions, you could have Leaky Gut Syndrome and not even realize it.

The reason is that Leaky Gut Syndrome is one of the many concepts in medicine that cuts across the boundary lines of specific diseases.

It is a major example of an important medical phenomenon: distress in one organ causes disease in another.

Conditions that Can Signal Leaky Gut Syndrome

Do you have:

Arthritis,

Allergies,

Depression,

Eczema,

Hives,

Psoriasis,

Chronic fatigue syndrome or fibromyalgia?

Then you may also have Leaky Gut Syndrome, because it causes or contributes to these conditions.

That’s why getting a better understanding of Leaky Gut Syndrome may help you find a more effective solution to your condition.

I am telling you about Leaky Gut Syndrome because it is a vitally important, but often undiagnosed, condition that is key to recovering from many illnesses and regaining robust good health.

An Integrated Approach to Leaky Gut Syndrome

I’ve been evaluating patients for Leaky Gut Syndrome for over twenty years, and have been writing about my integrated approach to this condition. My article “Leaky Gut Syndromes: Breaking the Vicious Cycles” is available at the Foundation for Integrated Medicine website.

Through my clinical experience and further research I came to understand how gastrointestinal health in general, and Leaky Gut Syndrome in particular, contributes to many seemingly unrelated conditions.

To share my knowledge and help my colleagues learn more about this important topic I wrote a chapter titled “Integrative Approach to the Gastrointestinal System” for the textbook Integrative Medicine: Principles for Practice in 2004 and authored the book-length monograph Gastrointestinal Dysregulation: Connections to Chronic Disease, in 2008.

I have found Leaky Gut Syndrome especially relevant for many people with chronic fatigue syndrome.

Scientific Research Connects Leaky Gut with Chronic Fatigue and Depression

Recent research from Belgium confirms my observations about Leaky Gut Syndrome and chronic fatigue syndrome and suggests a treatment plan that can alleviate chronic fatigue and also major depression.

The Belgian researchers found that people in their study with either chronic fatigue syndrome or major depressive disorder showed laboratory evidence of Leaky Gut Syndrome, when compared to a healthy control group.

More importantly, they demonstrated that treatment with diet and specific nutrients not only reversed laboratory signs of the Leaky Gut Syndrome, but also improved symptoms of fatigue, malaise and depression.

I’ll describe my approach to this condition, and what lessons we can take away from the research from Belgium.

But first, I want to give you some background on Leaky Gut Syndrome and explain why the concept is still so controversial.

What is Leaky Gut Syndrome?

Because it connects apparently unrelated disorders, Leaky Gut Syndrome is one of the most misunderstood concepts in medicine today.

To begin with, Leaky Gut is not a single disease or syndrome; it’s a pathological condition that occurs as part of many different diseases and syndromes. The term refers to an abnormal increase in the permeability of the small intestine. Increased intestinal permeability is a component of many different disorders.

Leaky Gut Syndrome is associated with:

Inflammatory and infectious bowel diseases

Several types of arthritis

Acne

Psoriasis

AIDS

Chronic liver disease

Pancreatic disease

as well as numerous conditions triggered by food allergy, including eczema, hives, and irritable bowel syndrome

Why is increased small intestinal permeability such a problem?

The small intestine is the largest organ in your body and two-thirds of your immune system lies within its walls. The small intestine continuously activates itself by sampling the molecules that pass through the intestinal lining.

Leaky Gut Syndrome is increased permeability of this lining, and it alters the molecules which prime your immune system for action by allowing molecules that don’t ordinarily pass through the gut lining to get access to your immune system.

Sometimes, Leaky Gut Syndrome plays a primary role in the evolution of an illness.

Crohn’s disease is a serious chronic intestinal disorder that effects almost a million people in the United States. People who develop Crohn’s disease may have a genetically induced increase in intestinal permeability that creates the inflammation in the bowel. This predisposing leakiness can be found in close relatives of patients with Crohn’s diseases, suggesting that it precedes the development of inflammation.

Leaky Gut Syndrome can occur as a result of another disease.

Celiac disease is an inherited intolerance to gluten, a group of proteins found in wheat, barley and rye. Celiac disease affects about one person in a hundred in North America and often goes undiagnosed, even when people have severe symptoms. The inflammation caused by active celiac disease causes the leaky gut, which in turn causes some of the complications associated with celiac disease.

Leaky Gut Syndrome can also be caused by the treatment for another disease.

In rheumatoid arthritis, for example, the drugs used to relieve pain and inflammation can damage the intestinal lining, leading to Leaky Gut Syndrome within two weeks. Leaky Gut Syndrome, in turn, is associated with aggravation of arthritis.

For most conditions, the precise role of Leaky Gut Syndrome remains unclear, but it seems to be part of a vicious cycle that makes the condition get worse over time. Allergic reactions to food, for example, cause a transient increase in intestinal permeability. If this happens frequently, it may increase the number or severity of food allergies.

In chronic fatigue syndrome and major depressive disorder, Leaky Gut Syndrome activates the intestinal immune system to produce chemicals called cytokines that spread inflammation through your body.

Inflammation is an important trigger for symptoms like fatigue, malaise, pain, and depression.

When should you suspect Leaky Gut Syndrome?

If you have:

pain in multiple joints

a chronic skin condition

chronic diarrhea or abdominal pain,

chronic fatigue,

chronic depression,

malaise,

a feeling of being infected but your doctor can’t find the infection…

or if you use aspirin or anti-inflammatory drugs on a regular basis, or if you’re a heavy drinker of alcohol.

Recent research in animals has indicated that Leaky Gut Syndrome may also be associated with difficulty losing or gaining weight, but its association with obesity is still under investigation.

How can the possibility of Leaky Gut Syndrome be evaluated?

There are only a few laboratories that test for Leaky Gut Syndrome and all require a doctor’s order. Talk to your doctor about what test might be appropriate. High levels of antibodies to common food proteins or to normal intestinal bacteria may indicate increased intestinal permeability. Many research studies have used a challenge test involving a special solution consisting of two sugars, and seeing how much of each appears in urine. A blood test for celiac disease is essential.

Five Steps to Help Heal Leaky Gut Syndrome

Get rid of anything that might be causing or contributing to increased intestinal permeability:

1) Stop drinking alcohol for at least a month.

2) Stop using aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxen and other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS).

3) Have a stool test for intestinal parasites. There is extensive medical literature on intestinal parasites causing symptoms like fatigue, joint pain and skin disorders, without causing diarrhea. I discuss these in a chapter I wrote titled, “Intestinal Protozoan Infestation and Systemic Illness”, for the Textbook of Natural Medicine, 3rd Edition, in 2005.

4) Adopt an anti-inflammatory dietary pattern. I explain the benefits of eating to reduce inflammation, and provide a plan to achieve that, in my book, The Fat Resistance Diet. The principles are simple to understand: avoid foods with added sugar and refined starches, made from white flour. Decrease consumption of saturated fat and most vegetable oils, using extra virgin olive oil instead. Eat at least 9 servings of fruits and vegetables a day and at least 4 servings of fish per week.

5) There are dietary supplements that help the small intestine heal and restore its functional integrity. The most important of these are the amino acid L-glutamine and the amino sugar N-acetyl- glucosamine, which are readily available in health food stores.

These are but a few introductory steps toward an integrated approach to this condition. There is a vast amount of scientific literature on Leaky Gut Syndrome, a sample of which appear in the references below from journals such as The Lancet, The British Medical Journal and The Annals of Internal Medicine.

References:

1) Townsend Letter for Doctors, August/September 1995, p. 63. “Leaky Gut Syndromes: Breaking the Vicious Cycles.” Galland L. Online version available at http://www.mdheal.org/leakygut.htm
2) J Affect Disord. 2007 Apr;99(1-3):237-40.”Increased serum IgA and IgM against LPS of enterobacteria in chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS): indication for the involvement of gram-negative enterobacteria in the etiology of CFS and for the presence of an increased gut-intestinal permeability.” Maes M, Mihaylova I, Leunis JC.

3) Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2008 Jun;29(3):313-9. “An IgM-mediated immune response directed against nitro-bovine serum albumin (nitro-BSA) in chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) and major depression: evidence that nitrosative stress is another factor underpinning the comorbidity between major depression and CFS.” Maes M, Mihaylova I, Kubera M, Leunis JC.
4) Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2008 Feb;29(1):117-24.”The gut-brain barrier in major depression: intestinal mucosal dysfunction with an increased translocation of LPS from gram negative enterobacteria (leaky gut) plays a role in the inflammatory pathophysiology of depression.” Maes M, Kubera M, Leunis JC.
5) Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2008 Dec;29(6):902-10. “Normalization of leaky gut in chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) is accompanied by a clinical improvement: effects of age, duration of illness and the translocation of LPS from gram-negative bacteria.” Maes M, Leunis JC.
6) Gastroenterology, 1989. 97(4): p. 927-31.”Intestinal permeability in patients with Crohn’s disease and their healthy relatives.” Katz, K.D., et al.
7) Br Med J, 1982. 285(6334): p. 20-1. “Intestinal permeability in children with Crohn’s disease and coeliac disease.” Pearson, A.D., et al.,
Dig Dis Sci, 1990. 35(5): p. 582-8. “Relationship between intestinal permeability to [51Cr]EDTA and inflammatory activity in asymptomatic patients with Crohn’s disease.” Pironi, L., et al.
9) Gut, 1994. 35(1): p. 68-72. “Intestinal permeability in patients with Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis and their first degree relatives.” Munkholm, P., et al.,
10) Ann Intern Med, 1986. 105(6): p. 883-5. “Increased intestinal permeability in patients with Crohn’s disease and their relatives. A possible etiologic factor.” Hollander, D., et al.,
11) Gut, 1992. 33(3): p. 320-3. “Intestinal permeability in patients with Crohn’s disease and their first degree relatives.” Teahon, K., et al.,
12) Parasite. 2008 Sep;15(3):261-5 “Pathophysiology of enteric infections with Giardia duodenalius.” Buret AG.
13) Clin Exp Rheumatol, 1990. 8(1): p. 75-83. “A short review of the relationship between intestinal permeability and inflammatory joint disease.” Rooney, P.J., R.T. Jenkins, and W.W. Buchanan
14)Br J Rheumatol, 1987.26(2): p. 103-7. “Increased intestinal permeability in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a side-effect of oral nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug therapy?” Jenkins, R.T., et al.
15) Clin Exp Rheumatol, 1990. 8(5): p. 523-4.”Reflections on the link between intestinal permeability and inflammatory joint disease.” Mielants, H.
16) Gut, 1991. 32(12): p. 1470-2. “Increased intestinal permeability in ankylosing spondylitis–primary lesion or drug effect?” [see comments]. Morris, A.J., et al.
17) Rheumatol, 1985. 12(2): p. 299-305. “Abnormal bowel permeability in ankylosing spondylitis and rheumatoid arthritis.” Smith, M.D., R.A. Gibson, and P.M. Brooks, J.
18) Rheum Dis Clin North Am, 1991. 17(2): p. 363-71.”Fasting, intestinal permeability, and rheumatoid arthritis.” Skoldstam, L. and K.E. Magnusson
19) Q J Med, 1985. 56(221): p. 559-67. “Small intestinal permeability in dermatological disease.” Hamilton, I., et al.
20) Gut. 1999 Jul;45(1):70-6 “Small intestinal transit, absorption, and permeability in patients with AIDS with and without diarrhoea.” Sharpstone D, Neild P, Crane R, Taylor C, Hodgson C, Sherwood R, Gazzard B, Bjarnason I.
21) Dig Liver Dis. 2010 Mar;42(3):200-4 “Intestinal permeability in patients with chronic liver diseases: Its relationship with the aetiology and the entity of liver damage.” Cariello R, Federico A, Sapone A, Tuccillo C, Scialdone VR, Tiso A, Miranda A, Portincasa P, Carbonara V, Palasciano G, Martorelli L, Esposito P, Cartenì M, Del Vecchio Blanco C, Loguercio C.
22) J. Pediatr., 1992. 120: p. 696-701. “Correlation of intestinal lactulose permeability with exocrine pancreatic dysfunction.” Mack, D.R., et al.
23) Lancet, 1981. 1(8233): p. 1285-6. “Intestinal permeability in patients with eczema and food allergy.” Jackson, P.G., et al.
24) Digestion, 1989. 42(2): p. 104-9.”Intestinal permeability to 51Cr-labelled ethylenediaminetetraacetate in food-intolerant subjects.” Scadding, G., et al.
25) Lancet, 1981. i: p. 1285-1286. “Intestinal permeability in patients with eczema and food allergy.” Jacobson, P., R. Baker, and M. Lessof
26) Clin Allergy, 1986. 16(6): p. 543-51. “Gastrointestinal permeability in children with cow’s milk allergy: effect of milk challenge and sodium cromoglycate as assessed with polyethyleneglycols (PEG 400 and PEG 1000).” Falth-Magnusson, K., et al.
27) Clin Allergy, 1985. 15(6): p. 565-70. “Gastrointestinal permeability in atopic and non-atopic mothers, assessed with different-sized polyethyleneglycols (PEG 400 and PEG 1000).” Falth-Magnusson, K., et al.,
28) Clin Allergy, 1984. 14(3): p. 277-86. “Intestinal permeability in healthy and allergic children before and after sodium-cromoglycate treatment assessed with different-sized polyethyleneglycols (PEG 400 and PEG 1000).” Falth-Magnusson, K., et al.
29) J Allergy Clin Immunol, 1991. 88(5): p. 737-42. “Identical intestinal permeability changes in children with different clinical manifestations of cow’s milk allergy.” Jalonen, T.
30). J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr, 1990. 11(1): p. 72-7. “Modifications of intestinal permeability during food provocation procedures in pediatric irritable bowel syndrome.” Barau, E. and C. Dupont,
31) Ann Allergy, 1990. 64(4): p. 377-80.”Intestinal permeability in irritable bowel syndrome. Effect of diet and sodium cromoglycate administration.” Paganelli, R., et al.
32) Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2007 Feb;292(2):G518-25 “Increased intestinal permeability in obese mice: new evidence in the pathogenesis of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Brun P, Castagliuolo I, Di Leo V, Buda A, Pinzani M, Palù G, Martines D.
33) Gut. 2009 Aug;58(8):1091-103 “Changes in gut microbiota control inflammation in obese mice through a mechanism involving GLP-2-driven improvement of gut permeability.” Cani PD, Possemiers S, Van de Wiele T, Guiot Y, Everard A, Rottier O, Geurts L, Naslain D, Neyrinck A, Lambert DM, Muccioli GG, Delzenne NM.
34) Textbook of Natural Medicine, 3rd Edition, Volume 2, J. Pizzorno and M. Murray, editors, Churchill Livingstone Elsevier, St. Louis, 2005, pp. 655-660. “Intestinal Protozoan Infestation and Systemic Illness”, Galland L.

Why Medication Can Be Dangerous to Your Health

2011-04-20T19:02:00.000-07:00

Why Medication Can Be Dangerous to Your Health

by Dr. Leo Galland

Did you know that the majority of FDA approved drugs have serious potential side effects that were not detected before marketing approval? (1)

That about three quarters of a million people a year are rushed to emergency rooms in the U.S. because of adverse drug reactions, according to the CDC? (2)

That the number of medication-related deaths in the U.S. is estimated at over 200,000 a year, making medications the third or fourth leading cause of death in this country? (3)

That even common pain relievers called NSAIDs, examples of which include Advil, Motrin, Aleve and aspirin, account for an estimated 7,600 deaths and 76,000 hospitalizations in the U.S. every year? (4)

It sounds like the cure could be worse than the disease in far too many cases.

Thankfully, there is an option, an innovative approach to healing that seeks to restore balance and healthy function, instead of simply treating symptoms with drugs and suffering the side effects. I call it integrated medicine, and it is a powerful and effective way to address chronic illness…more on that in a moment.

But first, let me explain in brief why the everyday medications Americans rely upon are so dangerous.

The reason is simple and based upon the basic nature of modern drug therapy.

Most drugs used today are intended to act like biochemical strait jackets. They suppress cellular functions that appear to be overactive.

You can see this by looking at the names given to categories or classes of drugs. Almost all include “blocker,” “inhibitor” “anti-“ in the description: beta-blockers, calcium blockers, ACE inhibitors, proton pump inhibitors, anti-histamines, and anti-inflammatories. These drugs are developed to treat disease by interfering with the biochemical processes involved in illness.

But they also interfere with the natural and healthy functions of the body.

It’s like throwing a wrench into a sophisticated machine in an effort to fix it.

Furthermore, the biochemical processes they inhibit are rarely the cause of the illness. They are just part of the many changes in the body that accompany disease. Outside the setting of disease these biochemical processes all play important roles in normal cellular function.

It’s no wonder that many of these drugs have side effects that are a direct extension of their therapeutic actions. (5) They are not restoring normal cellular function; they are merely inhibiting cellular hyperactivity.

NSAIDs (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) are an excellent example and include common over the counter drugs such as aspirin (Bayer, Bufferin and Excedrin), ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin and Nuprin), and naproxen (Aleve). They relieve pain and inflammation by blocking an enzyme called cyclo-oxygenase (COX).

Although COX activity contributes to pain and inflammation, this enzyme also performs important functions such as:

Protecting the stomach from the corrosive effects of its own acid,

Regulating circulation of blood to the kidneys,

Modulating the activity of the immune system.

NSAID use can have severe side effects, which are a direct result of COX inhibition.

The documented side effects of chronic NSAID use include:

Stomach ulcers

Intestinal bleeding

Kidney failure

High blood pressure

Aggravation of immune system disorders like asthma, Psoriasis and Colitis.

When you took an NSAID, let’s say for a headache, were you aware that you could just be trading one problem for another?

The search for a safer type of NSAID led to the development of drugs called selective COX inhibitors. As their name suggests, they’re selective in their effect, designed to inhibit only the so-called “bad” COX enzyme, without inhibiting the so-called “good” COX enzyme.

This approach created one of the most highly anticipated drug releases in the history of medicine: Vioxx.

Vioxx was a disaster; it increased the death rate from heart attacks and strokes and was withdrawn from the market.

What the scientists behind Vioxx failed to recognize is that all forms of the COX enzyme are important for health. (13)

So instead of giving us a safer drug therapy, it was like tossing a different type of wrench into the machine.

The idea that there are “bad” enzymes and “good” enzymes or “bad” hormones and “good” hormones is a total misrepresentation of how the body works. But the pharmacology underlying conventional medical treatments is based upon that misrepresentation.

Fortunately there is another way of looking at health and healthcare that addresses the underlying causes of illness: integrated medicine.

The great value of integrated medicine is that it provides alternative strategies for healing, based upon enhancing normal physiological balance instead of merely attempting to suppress the hyperactive biochemistry involved in disease.

One of the powerful strategies of integrated medicine is the therapeutic use of nutrition. Nutritional therapy, when properly used, can achieve results that drugs cannot, because nutrients are essential components of the cellular information network. An excellent example is omega-3 fatty acids.

Thirty years ago I pioneered the therapeutic uses of omega-3 fatty acids in my research, scholarly writing and teaching of medical faculty. Seeking to educate the wider public about the importance of omega-3’s and other dietary fats I made them a cornerstone of my books Superimmunity for Kids and Power Healing.

Omega-3 fatty acids are found in fish, flax seed, walnuts, sea vegetables and leafy greens. The most potent omega-3’s, EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) and DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) are used by the cells of your body to make powerful chemicals that help to maintain normal cell function under conditions of stress. (14) The so-called “bad” COX, in fact, converts DHA to substances called resolvins and neuroprotectins, which play a vital role in controlling inflammation (15) and helping brain cells survive injury. (16) This is one reason the inhibition of any of the COX enzymes can be bad for your health.

Knowledge of the benefits of omega-3 fats provides an alternative strategy for controlling inflammation that is both natural and potent. The basic idea is to increase your body’s levels of DHA, the omega-3 fatty acid your body uses to make these beneficial chemicals.

Remarkable results in reducing inflammation can be accomplished by dietary changes and nutritional supplementation. Increase consumption of foods that contain omega-3 fats (mentioned above) and decrease consumption of foods that interfere with the anti-inflammatory effects of omega-3 fats, such meat, and oils, spreads and dressings made from corn, sunflower, soybean, safflower or cottonseed oil, substituting olive oil and flax oil instead. This simple approach had allowed people in research studies with severe rheumatoid arthritis to decrease their use of anti-inflammatory drugs. (17,18)

Putting these principles together, I created an anti-inflammatory dietary program called The Fat Resistance Diet. For free recipes and a one-day meal plan visit www.fatresistancediet.com

A vast amount of scientific research has been published in prestigious medical journals on the therapeutic use of nutrition. Now it is time to put all of that essential knowledge to work.

Making nutrition a cornerstone of everyone’s healthcare has been my longstanding goal and is the first step in real healthcare reform. Moving from a system based on treating symptoms to a system for achieving optimal health will enable healthcare to achieve its true potential.

References:

1) Manag Care Interface. 2005 Oct;18(10):49-52 “Preventing adverse drug reactions in the general population” Pezalla E.

2) JAMA. 2006 Oct 18;296(15):1858-66. “National surveillance of emergency department visits for outpatient adverse drug events.” Budnitz DS, Pollock DA, Weidenbach KN, Mendelsohn AB, Schroeder TJ, Annest JL

3) Pezzalla E., Manag Care Interface. 2005 Oct;18(10):49-52

4) Annals of Internal Medicine, 1997, 127:429-438. “Unnecessary Prescribing of NSAIDs and the Management of NSAID-Related Gastropathy in Medical Practice.” R Tamblyn, L Berkson, WD Jauphinee, D Gayton, R Grad, A Huang, L Isaac, P McLeod, L Snell

5) JAMA 1991; volume 266: pp 2847-2851 “Computerized surveillance of adverse drug events in hospitalized patients.” Lassen DC, Pestotnick SL, Evans RS, Burke JP.

6) Annals of Internal Medicine. 1988; pp 359-363.. “Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug use and death from peptic ulcer in elderly persons.” Griffin MR, Ray WA, Schaffner W

7) Gastroenterology. 1987; 93: 480-489. “NSAID induced intestinal inflammation in humans.” Bjarnasson I, Zanelli G, Smith T, et al.

Archives of Internal Medicine. 1992; 986-990. “Acute renal failure and glomerulopathy caused by nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.” Shankel SW, Johnson DC, Clark PS, Shankel TL, O’Neill WM.

9) Archives of Internal Medicine. 1993; 153: 477-484. “A meta-analysis of the effects of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs on blood pressure.” Pope JE, Anderson JJ, Felson DT

10) Clin Chest Med. 1990; 11:163-175. “Drug-induced bronchospasm.” Meeker DP, Wiedemann HP.

11) J Dermatol. 1981; 8: 323-337. “Exacerbation of psoriasis induced by indomethacin.” Katayama H, Kawada A.

12) Annals of Internal Medicine. 1987; 107: 513-516. “Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs activate quiescent inflammatory bowel disease.” Kaufmann HJ, Taubin HL.

13) Cardiovascular & Haematological Disorders-Drug Targets, 2006, 6, 83-98. “Cyclooxygenase-2 Inhibitors: A Painful Lesson.” S Sanghi, EJ MacLaughlin, CW Jewell, S Chaffer, PJ Naus, LE Watson, DE Dosta.

14) Curr Mol Med. 2009;9:565-79. “Role of lipoxins and resolvins as anti-inflammatory and proresolving mediators in colon cancer.” Janakiram NB, Rao CV.

15) Proc Nutr Soc. 2010, 28:1-8 “Fish oil and rheumatoid arthritis: past, present and future.” James M, Proudman S, Cleland L.

16) J Lipid Res. 2009: 50 Suppl:S400-405. “Neuroprotectin D1-mediated anti-inflammatory and survival signaling in stroke, retinal degenerations, and Alzheimer’s disease. Bazan NG.

17) Drugs 2003; 63: 845-53. “The role of fish oils in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis.” Cleland et al.

18) Rheumatol Int. 2003; 23: 27-36. “Anti-inflammatory effects of a low arachidonic acid diet and fish oil in patients with rheumatoid arthritis.” Adam et al,

Aspirin and Vitamin C

2011-04-18T19:33:00.000-07:00

Aspirin and Vitamin C
by Dr. Leo Galland

Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) has been around for over a hundred years and can be a useful drug for treating pain. Millions of people take low dose aspirin every day in an effort to prevent heart attacks or strokes. But aspirin can erode the lining of the stomach or intestines, causing internal bleeding, even at low doses.

Research on Aspirin and Vitamin C

Research studies done in Germany demonstrate that aspirin interferes with absorption of vitamin C and regular use of aspirin can deplete the gastrointestinal lining of vitamin C.

German researchers have shown that taking vitamin C along with aspirin can decrease the amount of stomach damage that aspirin produces in healthy humans and in patients with inflammation of the stomach caused by infection with Helicobacter pylori, a bacterium that causes ulcers.

No dietary supplement is guaranteed to prevent aspirin-induced gastrointestinal damage.

If you are taking aspirin, ask your doctor whether vitamin C might be good to take along with it.

REFERENCES AND ABSTRACTS

Eur J Pharmacol. 2004 Dec 15;506(2):169-77.Effect of vitamin C-releasing acetylsalicylic acid on gastric mucosal damage before and after Helicobacter pylori eradication therapy. Konturek PC, Kania J, Gessner U, Konturek SJ, Hahn EG, Konturek JW. First Department of Medicine, University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Germany.

The interaction between Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as acetylsalicylic acid is still controversial. This study was designed to compare the effect of acetylsalicylic acid and vitamin C-releasing acetylsalicylic acid on the gastric mucosal damage and microbleeding before and after eradication of H. pylori in 10 young healthy volunteers. Acetylsalicylic acid induced significantly more gastric lesions and higher microbleeding than acetylsalicylic acid-vitamin C. After successful H. pylori eradication therapy, acetylsalicylic acid induced significantly higher mucosal lesions and microbleeding than before eradication. In contrast, after acetylsalicylic acid-vitamin C, gastric lesion index was significantly lower and eradication therapy failed to aggravate it. All H. pylori-positive subjects showed significant up-regulation of antioxidant enzyme (superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase). Plain acetylsalicylic acid stronger than acetylsalicylic acid-vitamin C reduced gastric gene expression of these antioxidant enzymes. H. pylori eradication significantly decreased expression of these enzymes and this was further enhanced by plain acetylsalicylic acid, but not acetylsalicylic acid-vitamin C. Under plain acetylsalicylic acid therapy, the expression of proinflammatory cytokines was increased before and after eradication of H. pylori. We conclude that vitamin C combined with acetylsalicylic acid, unlike plain acetylsalicylic acid without vitamin C, protects gastric mucosa in man probably due the attenuation of oxidative stress and proinflammatory cytokines.

Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2004 Sep;42(9):481-7.Effects of acetylsalicylic acid on ascorbic acid concentrations in plasma, gastric mucosa, gastric juice and urine–a double-blind study in healthy subjects.Schulz HU, Schürer M, Krupp S, Dammann HG, Timm J, Gessner U LAFAA Laboratory for Contract Research in Clinical Pharmacology and Biopharmaceutical Analytics GmbH, Bad Schwartau, Germany. lafaa_gmbh@t-online.de

OBJECTIVE: This study investigated concentrations of ascorbic acid (ASC) in gastric mucosa, gastric juice, urine and plasma in healthy subjects under steady state and fasted conditions with and without concomitant administration of acetylsalicylic acid (ASA). MATERIAL AND METHODS: This was a prospective, randomized, double-blind, parallel-group study in healthy subjects. It has assessed the effects of a 6-day administration of 0.8 g ASA or 0.48 g ASC, 3 times daily and the combination of both on concentrations of ASC in gastric mucosa, gastric juice, urine and plasma. Treatments were switched after 6 days without any washout for assessment of compartment sensitivity to changes in study medication resulting in an overall 14-day study period. Each of the 3 treatment groups consisted of 15 subjects. RESULTS: ASC concentrations were highest in the gastric mucosa (251+/-11 microg/g), followed by gastric juice (29+/-6 microg/ml), plasma (10+/-0.2 microg/ml), and urine (5+/-1 microg/ml). On day 7, ASC concentrations in gastric mucosa, plasma and urine had increased in those groups receiving ASC and decreased in the group receiving ASA only. All differences were statistically significant and indicate an interaction with ASA. In gastric juice, differences in ASC concentrations between the treatment groups were not statistically significant between baseline and day 7. ASC concentrations in plasma were strongly correlated with corresponding ASC concentrations in gastric mucosa (r = 0.34) and urine (r = 0.83), as were ASC concentrations in gastric mucosa with ASC in urine (r = 0.28). CONCLUSIONS: The gastric mucosa is the largest depot of ASC in the human body with ASC concentrations 25 times higher than in plasma. In healthy subjects, clinically relevant doses of ASA reduced ASC concentrations in gastric mucosa by about 10% within 6 days resulting from antioxidative defense mechanisms. In patients with long-term ASA treatment or conditions with additional risks such as elderly subjects with unfavorable dietary conditions and impaired antioxidative protection, a protective adjunct administration of ASC appears to be beneficial.

Int J Vitam Nutr Res Suppl. 1982;23:83-90.Vitamin C-aspirin interactions.Basu TK.

The effect of soluble aspirin on the availability of vitamin C has been studied in guinea-pigs and human subjects. In the human study, the concentrations of vitamin C in plasma, leucocytes and urine were found to be markedly elevated at various intervals following administration of a single oral dose of 500 mg of the vitamin. The vitamin C-associated increases, however, appeared to be blocked when the vitamin was given simultaneously with aspirin (900 mg). Similar findings were observed in guinea-pigs, where in addition faecal excretion of vitamin C was found to be significantly increased when the vitamin was administered together with aspirin. These results suggest that aspirin may impede gastrointestinal absorption of vitamin C. This hypothesis has been strengthened with in vitro studies using everted gut sac preparations where both the serosal/mucosal concentration gradient and the uptake of vitamin C per unit weight of intestine were markedly lowered by acetyl-salicylate. Such an interaction is relevant to the population where vitamin C intake is borderline.

Natural Anti- Inflammatory Foods and Supplements That Help Arthritis

2011-04-18T18:30:00.000-07:00

Natural Anti- Inflammatory Foods and Supplements That Help Arthritis
by Dr. Leo Galland

Here’s a look at some alternative natural remedies for inflammatory arthritis. There are natural anti-inflammatory foods that can help with arthritis, as well as supplements.

Arthritis—inflammation of the joints—is the most common cause of disability in the U.S., affecting 43 million people and limiting physical activity in almost 19 million every year. (1).

Arthritis medications are among the most highly prescribed drugs in the world. The most commonly used over the counter drugs for arthritis, called NSAIDs, examples of which include Advil, Motrin, Aleve and aspirin, also have serious side effects. For more on this, see my article Why Medication Can Be Dangerous to Your Health "According to the CDC, NSAID’s account for an estimated 7,600 deaths and 76,000 hospitalizations in the U.S. every year. (2)

Foods that help arthritis and supplements are under-utilized weapons in the battle against this painful inflammatory condition.

First, there are anti-inflammatory supplements like fish oil and borage oil that have been shown to allow reduction of NSAID use in patients with rheumatoid arthritis, one of the most crippling types of arthritis. Fish oil works even better in combination with extra-virgin olive oil to reduce inflammation, as I explain below.

Second, there are supplements like colostrum and glutamine (an amino acid) that have been shown in research studies to help decrease the risk of stomach damage in people taking NSAIDs. Detailed research on how these supplements may help protect against NSAID side effects can be found at Pill Advised, a free web application that I’ve created to bring important research findings to a wider audience.

Nutrition is another vital tool in fighting inflammatory arthritis. Unfortunately, there are a lot of myths about what to eat, and what to not eat, to help arthritis. I’ll try to dispel some of these and present the science.

On November 5, 2010 I presented a review of the scientific data on the relationship between diet and inflammation at Morristown Memorial Hospital’s Fourth Annual Symposium on Nutrition and Supplements in Clinical Practice.

Because I’ve found these natural anti-inflammatory principles extremely beneficial for my patients with arthritis, I’m providing a summary here.

Natural Anti-Inflammatory Foods That Help Arthritis

1. Eat at least 8 servings of fruits and vegetables every day.

Choose those with bright or deep colors like cherries and berries and sweet potatoes that contain natural anti-inflammatory nutrition. Don’t believe the old saw that citrus fruits and “nightshade” vegetables like tomatoes and peppers cause arthritis. Oranges and tomatoes have been shown to have significant anti-inflammatory effects in some people. NOTE: Food allergies can trigger arthritis for some people, and if there is a food that makes your joints hurt or swell, you should avoid it, no matter how healthy it would be for someone who’s not sensitive to it. Most of the patients I’ve seen do better eating lots of vegetables and fruits. Tomatoes, incidentally, seem to have more of anti-inflammatory effect when they’re cooked or juiced, but most other vegetables and fruits are better if they’re fresh.

2. Choose your oils wisely.

Extra-virgin olive oil has natural anti-inflammatory benefits, whether raw or cooked. Recent research has identified the antioxidant called oleocanthal, which is only found in extra-virgin olive oil. Oleocanthal is a natural anti-inflammatory with potency strikingly similar to that of the drug ibuprofen in inhibiting an enzyme that causes pain and inflammation. Studies have shown that people with inflammatory arthritis experience a decrease in pain and stiffness of their joints when treated with fish oil. Even better pain management results have been observed when, in addition to fish oil, extra-virgin olive oil is part of the natural anti-inflammatory diet.

Flaxseed oil and flaxseed meal (ground flaxseed), also have significant anti-inflammatory effects, but should not be cooked, because cooking destroys some of the beneficial omega-3 fats. Other vegetable oils, like corn, safflower or sunflower oils, can increase inflammation and counteract the benefits of anti-inflammatory nutrients in your diet.

3. Eat fish 3 times a week.

Especially wild salmon, if it’s available and affordable, but don’t fry your fish; frying interferes with the benefits. Supplement your diet with the natural anti-inflammatory, fish oil. The amount of fish oil you need is not fixed; it varies from about a teaspoon (4000 milligrams) to a tablespoon (12,000 milligrams) each day, depending upon what else is in your diet. The more meat, poultry, egg yolk or dairy fat you eat, the greater your need for fish oil, because these foods contain arachidonic acid, a pro-inflammatory omega 6 fatty acid. The more you use vegetable oils other than extra virgin olive oil, the more fish oil you need.

4. Avoid sugar and foods with added sugar and refined carbohydrates

Reduce inflammation by cutting out white flour products, white rice and white potatoes. Several studies have shown that consuming foods of this type aggravates inflammation. Instead eat high fiber foods like whole grains and legumes. Studies have shown that high fiber diets are anti-inflammatory. Don’t worry about carrots. All the publicity given to the Glycemic Index of foods (the tendency for a food to raise blood sugar) has given carrots a bad rep. The carotenoids in carrots, anti-oxidants that create the orange color, and the fiber, make carrots an anti-inflammatory food. Carrots, like tomatoes, are also more nutritious cooked than raw.

5. Drink tea, black or green.

The notion that green tea is healthier than black tea has not been borne out by clinical trials in humans. Green tea may have anti-cancer effects, but black tea has a better track record in fighting inflammation. You need at least 3 cups a day, unless you’re a smoker, in which case no amount of tea will work for you.

6. Use anti-inflammatory spices in preparing your food.

Ginger and turmeric have excellent anti-inflammatory effects, although human clinical trials with these spices are much more limited than for the other principles listed.

References:

The information here is based upon principles in my upcoming article being published in print in the scientific journal, Nutrition in Clinical Practice, (http://ncp.sagepub.com/ ) December issue, where a list of scientific references supporting the principles listed above can be found.

1) US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (http://www.cdc.gov/chronicdisease/resources/publications/aag/arthritis.htm)

2) Robyn Tamblyn, PhD; Laeora Berkson, MD, MHPE, FRCPC; W. Dale Jauphinee, MD, FRCPC; David Gayton, MD, PhD, FRCPC; Roland Grad, MD, MSc; Allen Huang, MD, FRCPC; Lisa Isaac, PhD; Peter McLeod, MD, FRCPC; and Linda Snell, MD, MHPE, FRCPC, "Unnecessary Prescribing of NSAIDs and the Management of NSAID-Related Gastropathy in Medical Practice," Annals of Internal Medicine (Washington, DC: American College of Physicians, 1997), September 15, 1997, 127:429-438.

Why antioxidants are good for us

2011-03-04T22:44:00.000-08:00

We all know that oxygen is essential for our bodies to function. But scientific studies have shown that oxygen can produce toxic substances as well. Some examples of these toxins are peroxide, superoxide, hydroxyl radicals, and something called “excited stage oxygen.”

When these substances combine with other molecules in the body, “free-radicals” are formed. These are high-energy chemical substances that can damage our healthy cells and cause diseases like inflammation and infections, degenerative arthritis, diabetes, cancer and cardiovascular disease. This free-radical damage is also known as oxidization.

Antioxidants work by preventing excessive oxidization and repairing the damage to the cells. Normally, our bodies can supply its own antioxidants. But when there is rapid production of free-radicals (from exercise, smoking, exposure to radiation or other metabolic processes like the breaking down of food), our bodies will need an additional supply of antioxidants from external sources.

Here’s an experiment you can do right in your kitchen. Cut an apple until it begins to turn brown. This discoloration is due to oxygen reacting with the apple, creating free-radicals. This is oxidization at work. Then, dip the apple in some lemon juice or orange juice, which contains vitamin C (an antioxidant), and watch the discoloration slow down. The vitamin C in the juice decreases the rate of free-radical activity taking place in the apple.

A recent study conducted by researchers from London found that 5 servings of fruits and vegetables daily can reduce the risk of stroke by 25 percent. Antioxidants may also enhance immune defense and therefore lower the risk of cancer and infection.

Boost your body’s antioxidant level by consuming these foods:

Examples of Antioxidants	Food Sources
Carotenoids	broccoli, spinach, squash, melon, sweet potato, carrots
Vitamin C	citrus fruits, green peppers, broccoli, green leafy vegetables, strawberries, tomatoes
Vitamin E	nuts and seeds, whole grains, green leafy vegetables, vegetable oil and liver oil
Vitamin A	carrots, broccoli, tomatoes, peaches, sweet potato, melon, squash, cabbage, pechay, watermelon
Selenium	fish and shellfish, red meat, grains, eggs, chicken, garlic
Lycopene	tomatoes, watermelon, guava
Lutein	corn, mango, broccoli, kiwi, spinach, melon, cabbage, egg yolks, peas
Lignan	oatmeal, sesame seeds, cashew, broccoli
Flavonoids/Polyphenols	coffee, tea, soy, red wine, purple grapes, onions, apples

Coffee, in particular, is an important and common source of antioxidants in many people’s diet throughout the world. Unlike food types that we can sometimes tire of, coffee remains a constant in our daily routine, ensuring that we receive antioxidants on a daily basis. So go ahead and enjoy a cup of antioxidants with NESCAFÉ and make it part of your daily habit!

Sources:
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/antioxidants.htmlhttp://www.healthcastle.com/antioxidant.shtmlhttp://www.eatright.org/cps/rde/xchg/ada/hs.xsl/home_9660_ENU_HTML.htmhttp://www.eatright.org/cps/rde/xchg/ada/hs.xsl/home_4634_ENU_HTML.htmhttp://www.nestle.com.ph/nescafe/positivecoffeenews/topics_wellness_howantioxidants.htm

Thyroid disorders - Yahoo! Philippines News

2011-02-23T07:03:00.000-08:00

MANILA, Philippines - A slowing down of the physical or mental functions is usually accepted as the normal course of old age, rather than being diagnosed as an illness or condition that may be treated with proper nutrition, hormones, exercise, or a change of lifestyle. Perhaps one of the under-diagnosed health problems in old age is hypothyroidism, an insufficient production or absorption of the thyroid hormone that won't allow our metabolism to function at its peak efficiency.

What is the thyroid?

The thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located in the neck, over the trachea, or windpipe, just below the larynx. The thyroid has tremendous responsibilities, as it is the gland that affects virtually all metabolic processes and is vital for the normal function of every cell in the body. It does this by releasing certain hormones known as thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), which in turn regulate the body's metabolism, temperature, and heart rate. Should it produce too little or too much, all kinds of bad things begin to happen.

How do you make thyroid hormone?

In order to be sure you're getting all the thyroid hormone your body needs, it's helpful to understand how your body makes it. The whole process begins with the hypothalamus, the body's "thermostat," which regulates many hormonal activities. When the hypothalamus determines that the blood levels of thyroid hormone (TH) have fallen too low, it sets a chain of activity in motion by discharging thyroid releasing hormone (TRH). TRH signals the pituitary to release a second hormone, thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH). Finally, TSH tells the thyroid gland to get to work, and the thyroid gland produces thyroid hormone. When the thyroid hormone have risen high enough for the body to function properly, the pituitary responds by ceasing to release TSH and the process stops, until the hypothalamus determines that it's time to start again.

Hypothyroidism

Hypothyroidism is not diagnosed often enough. There are many people who are tired, restless, chronically constipated, overweight, and with falling hair, women whose menstrual flow is too heavy, with dry skin. Identifying hypothyroidism requires a high index of suspicion by you and your physician, followed by blood tests that measure how much thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) is being produced by the brain and how much thyroid hormone is actually circulating in your body.

There are two ways that the body can come to suffer from insufficient thyroid hormone. One is the thyroid itself has difficulty producing it. Lack of iodine, a tumor, or some other thyroid problem may result in a gland that doesn't properly carry out the orders given by the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland. This is known as primary hypothyroidism. The other way that the thyroid hormone levels can fall is when the hypothalamus and/or the pituitary aren't functioning properly. This is known as secondary hypothyroidism.

The thyroid itself needs iodine to function. Lack of iodine will cause the thyroid to swell, a condition known as goiter, a visibly enlarged thyroid gland on the front and side of the neck. You need a very tiny amount of iodine, however - a daily dose of 100 micrograms (mcgs) for women and 120 mcgs for men. Most people get that in iodized salt or seafoods.

Hypothyroidism, sometimes called myxedema, is caused by underactivity of the thyroid gland. It can be due to one of several causes, or it can occur for no apparent reason. One occasional cause is treatment for hyperthyroidism, which carries a significant risk that the overactive gland may later become underactive.

Less often is a condition called "Hashimoto-thyroiditis" - a defect in the immune system that leads not only to hypothyroidism but also to enlargement of the thyroid and the formation of goiter. The other reason people develop hypothyroidism is as a result of surgery with radioactive iodine for the treatment of Graves disease, which is also an autoimmune disorder.

What are the symptoms?

The symptoms of hypothyroidism develop slowly, taking months or even years. Underactivity of the thyroid gland slows down the chemical reactions in the body, causing the following:

* Weight gain - most patient gain from five to ten kilograms, although your appetite is normal or less than normal.

* Sensitivity to cold - you'll feel the cold very badly. You may suffer from muscle stiffness and spasm.

* Mental problems - feel tired or sleepy, and slow down intellectually. Your reactions get slower. Some older people experience depression and paranoia.

* Slurred speech - voice becomes slow and husky.

* Heart problems - pulse rate is slow, some people develop high blood pressure, and chest pain could be the first symptom of hypothyroidism.

* Constipation - as a result of the general slowing down of the body's processes.

* Heavy periods - menstrual periods become heavier (hemorrhagic).

* Skin and hair problems - skin is likely to be rough and dry and to flake readily. It tends to be pale and your eyelids, hands and feet swell. Hair becomes dry and brittle and the outer part of the eyebrows may be missing.

* Loses of interest in sex.

* Nervous system disorders - you may become a little deaf and have trouble with your balance.

* Emotional instability - mood swings, easily upset, irritable, easily angered, nervous and anxious.

What should be done?

Many people feel tired and generally down at some time or other. However, most of them do not have hypothyroidism.

Depression mimics many of the symptoms of hypothyroidism. Your physician will probably ask for some blood analysis to determine the level of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), T3 and T4. If your physician suspects that you have an underactive thyroid gland, tests reveal low levels of the hormone T3 and T4 and high levels of TSH in your blood.

What is the treatment?

Whatever the cause, the treatment of hypothyroidism is straightforward. You will take medication containing artificially made thyroid hormones every day for the rest of your life. After a few days of treatment, you will feel much better, and after a few months you should return to normal health. Treatment is with thyroxine, which is available as 50 and 100 microgram tablets. Normally, thyroxine treatment begins slowly and you'll be prescribed a daily dose of 50 micrograms for three to four weeks, increasing to 100 micrograms daily. You'll then have another blood test some three months after starting treatment to assess whether any further minor adjustment of dose is necessary.

Hyperthyroidism

An overactive thyroid, hyperthyroidism or thyrotoxicosis, results from the overproduction of the thyroid hormones, T4 and T3, by the thyroid gland. In 75% of patients, this is the result of the presence of an antibody in the blood that stimulates the thyroid not only to secrete excessive amounts of thyroid hormones, but also to increase the size of the thyroid gland. This type of hyperthyroidism is called Graves disease. The cause of the antibody production is not known but it runs in the families; hence genes must play a role. There are some environmental factors that trigger the start of the disease in genetically susceptible individuals.

What are the symptoms?

An overactive thyroid gland causes the chemical reactions in the body to speed up, producing mental as well as physical symptoms.

* Weight loss - result because of the "burning off" of calories caused by the high levels of thyroid hormones in the blood.

* Heat intolerance and sweating - as the metabolism increases the body produces excessive heat, which it then gets rid of by sweating.

* Palpitations - aware of your heart beating faster than normal. In severe cases, particularly in more elderly people, there may be an irregular heartbeat, known as atrial fibrillation, and even heart failure.

* Irritability - you may find yourself increasingly unable to cope with stresses, sometimes bursting into tears with no apparent reason at all.

* Breathlessness - you get easily exhausted after climbing two or three flights of stairs.

* Tremors - handwriting may deteriorate, difficulty inserting a key into the lock.

* Changes in bowel movement - increase in frequency, softer than normal stool two to three times daily. Diarrhea can occasionally be a problem.

* Muscle weakness - thigh muscle becomes weak.

* Irregular periods - menstrual period becomes irregular, light or even absent. Women may find it difficult to conceive until the hyperthyroidism has been properly and adequately treated.

* Eye problems - excessive watering made worse by wind and bright light, pain and grittiness as if there is sand in the eyes, double vision and blurring of vision. Many sufferers develop exophthalmos (protruding eyes).

* Skin, hair, and nail problems - itchiness of the whole body, hair will probably become thinner and finer, nails will be brittle and become unsightly.

What should be done?

Similarly to the diagnosis of hypothyroidism, blood test is done and high levels of T3 and T4 and low levels of TSH can confirm overactive thyroid gland. Your physician may also request for thyroid scan to determine and obtain more information about the cause of the hyperthyroidism as this may affect the type of treatment that you will need.

What is the treatment?

Hyperthyroidism can be treated in one of three ways. The first possible treatment is to prescribe medication that contains antithyroid drugs. In most people the disorder is brought under control in about 8 weeks by this method, although you will have to continue to take medication for a prolonged period, sometimes for at least a year.

The second treatment is surgery. Surgery cures the disorder in about 90% of these cases. In a few cases, however, either the disease recurs or the thyroid becomes underactive as a result of surgery leading to hypothyroidism.

The third form of treatment consists of taking a dose of radioactive iodine in a form of a clear, slightly salty drink. Iodine is essential component of the thyroid hormone. There it acts on the glandular tissue to control the cellular overactivity slowly without exposing the rest of the body. If too much radiation is administered, the thyroid gland may become underactive, and you may have to take medication to compensate.

Each form of treatment has its advantages and disadvantages, and your physician will help you determine which is most appropriate for you.

Heart disease

2011-02-16T05:38:00.000-08:00

Heart disease, any of several abnormalities of the heart and its function in maintaining blood circulation. Among the most common causes of heart disease are degenerative changes in the coronary blood vessels, infectious diseases, and congenital heart disease. Congenital defects result from abnormal development of the fetal heart, commonly in the valves or septa. Such defects can be precipitated by environmental conditions in the uterus, such as the presence of the rubella virus, or they can be inherited. Infectious diseases acquired after birth, such as rheumatic fever, syphilis, and endocarditis, can also damage the valves of the heart. In addition, the heart muscle itself can be affected: hypertensive heart disease (see hypertension) can cause it to enlarge, and it can become inflamed by rheumatic fever. Arteriosclerotic depositions in the coronary arteries result in the narrowing of these vessels, causing insufficient blood flow and oxygen to the heart muscle, a condition known as coronary artery disease. The characteristic radiating chest pain, angina pectoris, is the most prominent symptom of this condition. Coronary arteries already narrowed by arteriosclerosis are made susceptible to blockage by a clot (coronary thrombosis), causing the death of the heart muscle supplied by the affected artery, a life-threatening event called a myocardial infarction, or heart attack. Hypertensive, coronary, congenital, and other forms of cardiovascular disease, either singly or in combination, can lead to a state in which the heart is unable to expel sufficient blood for the metabolic demands of the body, ultimately resulting in congestive heart failure. Disturbances in the normal heartbeat, called arrhythmias, can occur by themselves or in conjunction with other heart problems, for example infarction affecting the area of the heart that controls the heartbeat.

Green and Fit: 10 tips for an eco-friendly workout.

2011-02-16T04:46:00.000-08:00

Staying healthy by working out is good. But doing that while taking care of Mother Earth is another matter altogether. Some people's workout routines use up a lot of energy: driving to the gym, the aircon at the venue, plugged equipment like the treadmill, etcetera. So if you are conscious about keeping your carbon footprint small, consider these workout tips.

1. Consider walking or jogging around the neighborhood. Instead of using fitness equipment that consume energy, you may opt to do some jogging or brisk walking via routes that are scenic and safe.

2. Buy less. Less active wear, expensive running shoes, workout gizmos, and other fitness paraphernalia you can do without. Buy only what you really need and your carbon footprint will be significantly smaller. This means that you will be using less energy, throwing out less junk, and generally be kinder to our planet.

3. Here are light exercise activities you can try: Walk or bike to work; Work in your garden; Do sit-ups, weight-lifting, or stretching while watching TV; clean out your garage; take your dog for a walk; chase your kids around the yard.

4. Join organizations that do beach or mountain cleanups. You'll be keeping fit and helping the cause at the same time.

5. Stay close to home. Pop in your favorite dance music, turn it up a little and start dancing! It'll make you sweat, breathe deeper, and get your heart going faster. Definitely a fun exercise alternative, especially when done with a partner. You can also do yoga, Pilates, taichi or weight training at home. And if you prefer to go to the gym, choose one that's near your home or workplace. Avoid traffic, gas and parking expense, and added carbon emissions by walking to and from the gym. It’s great warm-up as well!

6. Use the stairs. At home, in your office, at the mall. Use it instead of the escalators or elevators, or run up and down the one at home for a quick workout.

7. Eat healthy workout snacks. Mix a bunch of nuts and some dried fruits, or grab a cup of yogurt as the perfect after-exercise snack.

8. Mind the details. When you're at the gym, use one towel instead of two, or bring your own instead of using paper towels to wipe the machines or your hands.

9. Find ways to combine your workout plan with your daily activities. For example, walk to the grocery or the market, bike to work, or park your car farther away when running errands.

10. Be resourceful. When working out at home, you can use simple objects as workout equipment. You can, for example, use two water-filled jugs as weights, a dining room chair or an old crate as your workout bench, etc.

How it all figures

0.75 kilowatt-hours: Energy used during 30 minutes on a treadmill.
6 hours: Length of time you could run a 0.5 horsepower aircon for one and a half hours on 0.75 kilowatt hours.
2 pounds: Amount of carbon dioxide a treadmill gives off during a 30 minute workout.
450 calories: Amount of energy burned during a typical 45-minute bike ride.

Sources:
www.care2.com
www.planetgreen.discovery.com
www.greendaily.com

Build your defenses!

2011-02-16T04:39:00.000-08:00

This rainy season, boost your immune system by adding these basic nutrients to your daily diet.

In this season, where pouring rains force people to come in closer contact with ailing individuals in enclosed spaces such as malls or public vehicles, and airborne viruses and bacteria are having a heyday floating from one victim to another, the key to good health is a good defense. This will come in a healthy body nourished by these 5 important immunity-building nutrients:

Vitamin C. This readily-available nutrient has been found to increase the production of white blood cells and antibodies, the primary function of which is to fight off infections. Foods rich in this important vitamin include citrus fruits, papayas, guavas, and tomatoes.
Vitamin E. This vitamin has been receiving a lot of attention lately for its antioxidant properties. It stimulates the production of immune cells that produce antibodies which target and destroy bacteria. Vitamin E is present in nuts, seeds, and vegetable oils. A significant amount is available from whole grain cereals, which give you another great reason for enjoying a full serving every morning.
Zinc. This power mineral not only helps increase the production of white blood cells, it even helps them fight harder. Children who have a regular zinc intake have been found to have fewer sick days. While there are zinc supplements that are already available, doctors say that zinc is easily found in fortified cereals, yogurt, beef, and seafood.
Vitamin A. This vitamin is actually a potent combination of beta carotene and retinol. Beta carotene by itself increases the number of infection-fighting cells and their helper T-cells. It also has antioxidant properties, because it helps eliminate free radicals from the body. Vitamin A is also good for the eyes, bones, teeth, skin and hair. It is found in a number of foods such as green leafy vegetables, carrots, milk, mangoes, and eggs.
Omega-3 fatty acids. Essential fatty acids act to protect the body against damages from infections. These are healthy fats from fish such as salmon, sardines, tuna, mackerel, catfish, and shellfish like clams and shrimps.

Source:

http://www.askdrsears.com/html/4/t042500.asp
http://www.medicinenet.com/omega-3_fatty_acids/article.htm

Daily activities to help keep you fit!

2011-02-16T04:33:00.000-08:00

Do you find yourself fighting off the little bulges? And much as you want to go to the gym to shed off a few pounds, your hectic schedule simply does not permit? Sadly, for some, taking care of one’s body through exercise is always at the bottom of the priority list. Good thing staying fit is not limited to the exercise routines performed inside the gym. Your day-to-day activities can actually count for a true-blue workout! Research suggests that maintaining an active lifestyle is the key to good health and weight management. Here are some simple little workouts that you can do to help keep you fit, trim and healthy!

WALKING

Walking, according to experts, is an excellent way to burn calories. It also helps improve mood and reduce stress. Take time to have a 30-minute walk. If you think that the place you’re heading to is not that far, instead of riding the car, just walk. All you need to do is to have a comfortable pair of footwear with you always and you’re ready to go!

CLIMBING THE STAIRS

Just like walking, climbing up the stairs is a great calorie burner and will definitely help tone your leg muscles. More so, this type of exercise helps strengthen cardiovascular stamina. It increases blood circulation and improves lung and heart function.

HOUSE CLEANING

You read it correctly. Cleaning the house is also a good way to keep your body healthy and fit. Intense cleaning can really tone specific parts of your body. For example, vacuum cleaning can do wonders to your arms and shoulders. And while you’re at it, put on a good music or two, jive to the beat so household chores become more fun!

DANCING

Work out your body by dancing! The good thing about this activity is the fact that you can do it anywhere you want to, even in the comforts of your own home! Shake those calories off, keep the blood circulating, and reduce stress and tension by dancing! It is definitely one fun and hardworking exercise that will keep you young and energized! Need a partner? Hold the doorknob with one hand and imagine it’s your partner’s hand!

PLAYTIME WITH KIDS

If you’re a mom or you have young siblings, then you can benefit tremendously from this excellent exercise in disguise! Running after your young one helps strengthen your stamina. The lifts will surely help tone your arm and leg muscles. Your mental alertness will also be practiced, as you have to be quick to respond to your child’s unpredictable antics. An afternoon of playtime would surely help burn fats significantly and leave you feeling good about yourself for putting a smile on your child’s face!

References:

http://www.ehow.com/how_2164657_that-can-be-turned exercise.html#ixzz0wqHhmUWr

http://www.livestrong.com

Brain Booster Tips!

2011-02-14T18:58:00.000-08:00

Taking care of our brain’s health is equally important as taking care of our body’s wellbeing. After all, the brain is one powerful organ--- the maximum potential of which is yet to be unlocked by science. Keeping our brains in shape will lead to an invigorated body and a healthy emotional state. Constantly challenging our brain and feeding it a well-balanced diet will help increase its memory capabilities, boost creativity levels, and improve cognitive levels. Start getting this organ in tip-top shape! Below is a list of activities that can help boost brain power!

Physical Exercise

A healthy body also leads to a healthy mind. Studies have shown that regular exercise affects how the brain functions. It boosts brain power by stimulating the formation of new brain cells, called neurons. Also, researchers found that the areas of the brain that are stimulated through exercise are usually associated with memory and learning.

So take time to have a regular exercise routine. It need not be complicated. In fact, simple exercises like running and walking can help boost oxygen in the brain. If you have kids, engage them in an afternoon of outdoor play! Not only are you spending quality time with them, you are also strengthening your body and mind!

Mental Stimulation

The more we think, the better our mind functions! Keep your mind sharp by constantly engaging in activities that help stimulate brain activity. Here are some useful activities that can help charge up your brain:

Play a game of Sudoku puzzles, scrabble, IQ quizzes and chess
Visit museums
Read books, newspapers, magazines
Learn how to play an instrument
Engage in conversations

Sleep

Sleep plays a crucial role in brain development and growth.

Studies have shown that sleep may contribute to the formation of new nerve cells in the brain, known as neurogenesis. Depriving the brain of the sleep it needs may reduce the number of new brain cells. In addition, neurons may not have enough time to repair all the damage, and may thus malfunction during the day. When you don’t get enough sleep, your mind processing is slower than the usual and you tend to think less clearly. So make sure you get enough sleep for physical and brain rest.

Laugh

The old adage says “laughter is the best medicine!” Today, the medical world has begun to take more notice of the healing power of laughter. Humor stimulates the parts of the brain that use the “feel good” chemical, dopamine. It also helps decrease your stress level significantly. Remember, severe stress can impair cell communication in the memory and learning areas of the brain. Some studies also suggest that humor helps improve memory.

Keep your heart fit and strong!

2011-02-14T18:44:00.000-08:00

Show your heart some love with these easy to follow cardio exercises!

Taking care of your heart should not end with just eating a well-balanced diet. It is best that you also complement it with an exercise routine. Researches have shown that regular exercise can help protect you from heart disease and stroke and high blood pressure. Exercising doesn’t necessarily mean that you have to enroll yourself in the gym. In fact, you can learn simple exercises that you can conveniently do right in the comforts of your own home! You only need to have the right time and the right attitude to start your daily workout. Exercising should not be treated as one herculean task that one has to conquer. Make it fun by recruiting workout mates, like your friends and family, to join your personal fitness schedule! To get you started, here’s a list of exercises that you can easily follow!

THE INVISIBLE JUMP ROPE

Jumping rope is one of the most effective and enjoyable exercises one can pursue. It is proven to be an effective calorie-burner and muscle toner. This popular exercise can actually be performed even without a rope. Just follow these steps correctly:

Start in an upright position with feet apart
Pretend that you are holding a jump rope in your hands. Elbows should stay at the side
As if you’re holding a jump rope in your hands, begin jumping, pushing off on the toes and swinging your arms in a circular motion
Repeat movement for a number of repetitions

JUMPING JACKS

Who doesn’t know how to do jumping jacks? Almost all of us grew up with this exercise, as it is usually a part of our P.E. routines way back our grade school days! Doing jumping jacks helps increase the heart rate, which gets the heart pumping and oxygen and blood flowing to the muscles.

Just to refresh your memory on how it’s done, here are the steps:

Start in an upright position, with the feet together and hands on the side
Begin the movement by jumping vertically, while at the same time move the feet apart and the hands coming up above the head
Return to starting position and repeat for a number of repetitions or a timed period
Make sure that your center is tight and your movements controlled and quick

LONG JUMPS

Incorporating long jumps in your routine will help increase intensity in your workout sessions. You’ll immediately feel your center working hard on this exercise as well as your heart. Just make sure that when you land, you do it with soft knees. You can also modify the landing part by allowing one foot to land first before the other one. Here’s how to do it:

Stand with feet together. Make sure that you have plenty of space in front of you
Lower into a squat and jump forward as far as you can, landing with both feet
Make sure you land with bent knees to protect the joints
Repeat movement for a period of time

BRISK WALK

Walking is one of the best, safest and most natural forms of exercise. In fact, studies have shown that regular brisk walking can lower cholesterol levels, stimulate circulation and strengthen the heart. Make it a point to squeeze in walking into your schedule. Take the afternoon off and walk around your compound or your village. Breathe in the tranquil surroundings and enjoy the cool late afternoon breeze. You may also invite your friends or family to join you. It’s the perfect opportunity to bond, exchange stories and catch up on each other’s daily activities!

FROGGY JUMPS

The natural movements of an animal can also inspire you to create your own exercise, like the FROGGY JUMP. It is an exercise that simulates the jumping moves of the frog. This is a great way to get your heart rate up in a short time. It’s so easy to do! Just follow these steps:

Squat all the way down to the floor while putting your hands on the floor in front of you
Push up from the floor, jumping in the air
As you jump, tap your heels together and take the hands behind the head or up in the air
Land with bent knees to protect the joints and go back into your squat position to prepare for the next jump

References:

www.fitnesstrainerstogo.com/cardio

http://exercise.about.com

http://ezinearticles.com

Vitamin

2010-10-26T02:29:00.000-07:00

Vitamin, any of the organic compounds required by the body in small amounts for metabolism, to protect health, and for proper growth in children. Vitamins also assist in the formation of hormones, blood cells, nervous-system chemicals, and genetic material. The various vitamins are not chemically related, and most differ in their physiological actions. They generally act as catalysts, combining with proteins to create metabolically active enzymes that in turn produce hundreds of important chemical reactions throughout the body. Without vitamins, many of these reactions would slow down or cease. The intricate ways in which vitamins act on the body, however, are still far from clear.

The 13 well-identified vitamins are classified according to their ability to be absorbed in fat or water. The fat-soluble vitamins—A, D, E, and K—are generally consumed along with fat-containing foods, and because they can be stored in the body's fat, they do not have to be consumed every day. The water-soluble vitamins—the eight B vitamins and vitamin C—cannot be stored and must be consumed frequently, preferably every day (with the exception of some B vitamins).

Lupus Erythematosus

2009-10-10T01:27:00.000-07:00

Lupus Erythematosus, chronic autoimmune disease in which the immune system treats the body’s own tissue as a foreign substance and produces antibodies to fight it. The damage caused by these antibodies may produce symptoms such as a characteristic butterfly-shaped rash on the face, headache, fatigue, arthritic joint disease, heart damage, shortness of breath, and impaired kidney function. Commonly known as lupus, the disease follows an irregular course of remissions and flare-ups, and may often be incapacitating

Diagnosis of lupus is difficult and can take years because symptoms are intermittent or may mimic other disorders. Diagnosis begins with a complete medical history, a physical examination, blood tests, and other studies that may be necessitated by the patient’s symptoms. The physician, normally a rheumatologist (an expert on musculoskeletal and immune system conditions) must consider and rule out other disorders such as chronic fatigue syndrome or mononucleosis before confirming the diagnosis.

Treatment for lupus requires a balance of medication and the control of environmental factors. Medications include aspirin and other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs as well as prescription drugs such as antimalarials, which relieve joint, skin, and fatigue symptoms, and corticosteroids, strong substances that suppress the immune response. A patient with lupus should avoid sunlight, eat a healthy diet, exercise, and minimize stress.

Transient Ischemic Attack

2009-10-03T06:31:00.000-07:00

Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA), medical term for a ministroke, a sudden loss of function in one region of the brain. Symptoms may include double vision or temporary loss of vision, speech difficulties, vomiting, loss of sensation and movement on one side of the body, dizziness, unsteadiness, and loss of memory. Loss of consciousness is rare. Symptoms usually reach a peak within seconds and last for minutes or hours. Recovery is complete, but TIAs tend to recur.

A TIA is caused by the obstruction of small blood vessels by tiny blood clots or, less often, by reduced blood supply to the brain associated with diseases of the heart or blood vessels, such as narrowing of the arteries due to atherosclerosis. Aspirin, because of its anticlotting properties, may reduce the risk of TIAs in some patients. Other cases may be helped by an operation known as carotid artery endarterectomy, used to clear blockage of the carotid artery in the neck.

Yellow Fever

2009-10-02T03:32:00.000-07:00

Yellow Fever, noncontagious, infectious disease, caused by a virus, and characterized in severe cases by high fever and jaundice. Originally yellow fever was believed to be exclusively a disease of humans, but research has revealed that it also affects monkeys and other animals. It is believed that diseased monkeys of Africa and tropical America are the primary source of infection and that carrier mosquitoes transmit the infection to humans. This type of the disease, which occurs only sporadically in human beings, is known as jungle yellow fever. If infected individuals move into a populated area, they may be bitten by a semidomestic species of mosquito, such as Aëdes aegypti, which lives close to human habitations. These feed on the blood of humans and are the chief transmitting agents in epidemics of urban yellow fever.

Whooping Cough

2009-10-02T03:30:00.000-07:00

Whooping Cough, also known as pertussis, common name applied to an acute, infectious disease of the respiratory tract, caused by the bacillus Bordetella pertussis. The disease is characterized in its late stages by a deep cough ending in a peculiar high-pitched whooping sound. Whooping cough occurs worldwide, periodically in epidemics.

Infection with pertussis usually occurs by inhaling droplets sprayed into the air during coughing or sneezing spells by an infected person. Once inside the respiratory tract, pertussis bacteria produce toxins (poisonous chemicals) that interfere with the respiratory tract’s ability to eliminate microbial infections. Pertussis bacteria also produce chemicals that cause inflammation of the lining of the respiratory tract.

The disease begins with a runny nose, a harsh cough, and a slight fever. The characteristic whoop develops one to two weeks later. Coughing spells, which usually occur at night and often end in vomiting, can continue to occur for four weeks or more. Complications of pertussis may include pneumonia and seizures.

Physicians treat whooping cough with antibiotics. Other treatments include controlling coughing with sedatives and replacing fluids lost by vomiting. Use of pertussis vaccine during the first year of life provides immunity to the infection in most children. Pertussis vaccine is usually given together with diphtheria and tetanus vaccines in a shot called DTaP.

Vitamin K

2009-10-02T03:26:00.000-07:00

This vitamin is necessary mainly for the coagulation of blood. It aids in forming prothrombin, an enzyme needed to produce fibrin for blood clotting. The richest sources of vitamin K are alfalfa and fish livers, which are used in making concentrated preparations of this vitamin. Dietary sources include all leafy green vegetables, egg yolks, soybean oil, and liver. For a healthy adult, a normal diet and bacterial synthesis in the bowels usually are sufficient to supply the body with vitamin K and prothrombin. Digestive disturbances may lead to defective absorption of vitamin K and hence to mild disorders in blood clotting.

Vitamin E

2009-10-02T03:24:00.000-07:00

The role of vitamin E in the human body is known to be an essential nutrient in more than 20 vertebrate species. The vitamin plays some role in forming red blood cells and muscle and other tissues and in preventing the oxidation of vitamin A and fats. It is found in vegetable oils, wheat germ, liver, and leafy green vegetables. Vitamin E is popularly advocated for a wide range of diseases, but no substantial evidence has been found to back these claims. Although vitamin E is stored in the body, overdoses appear to have lower toxic effects than do overdoses of other fat-soluble vitamins.

Vitamin D

2009-10-02T03:19:00.000-07:00

This vitamin is necessary for normal bone formation and for retention of calcium and phosphorus in the body. It also protects the teeth and bones against the effects of low calcium intake by making more effective use of calcium and phosphorus. Also called the sunshine vitamin, vitamin D is obtained from egg yolk, liver, tuna, and vitamin-D fortified milk. It is also manufactured in the body when sterols, which are commonly found in many foods, migrate to the skin and become irradiated. Vitamin D deficiency, or rickets, occurs only rarely in tropical climates where sunlight is abundant, but it was once common among children of other areas before the use of vitamin D-fortified milk. Rickets is characterized by deformities of the rib cage and skull and by bowlegs, due to failure of the body to absorb calcium and phosphorus. Because vitamin D is fat-soluble and stored in the body, excessive consumption can cause vitamin poisoning, kidney damage, lethargy, and loss of appetite.

Vitamin C

2009-10-02T03:14:00.000-07:00

Vitamin C or ascorbic acid, a well-known vitamin is important in the formation and maintenance of collagen, the protein that supports many body structures and plays a major role in the formation of bones and teeth. It also enhances the absorption of iron from foods of vegetable origin. Scurvy is the classic manifestation of severe ascorbic acid deficiency. Its symptoms are due to loss of the cementing action of collagen and include hemorrhages, loosening of teeth, and cellular changes in the long bones of children. Assertions that massive doses of ascorbic acid prevent colds and influenza have not been borne out by carefully controlled experiments. In other experiments, however, ascorbic acid has been shown to prevent the formation of nitrosamines—compounds found to produce tumors in laboratory animals and possibly also in humans. Although unused ascorbic acid is quickly excreted in the urine, large and prolonged doses can result in the formation of bladder and kidney stones, interference with the effects of blood-thinning drugs, destruction of B12, and the loss of calcium from bones. Sources of vitamin C include citrus fruits, fresh strawberries, cantaloupe, pineapple, and guava. Good vegetable sources are broccoli, brussels sprouts, tomatoes, spinach, kale, green peppers, cabbage, and turnips.

The B Vitamins

2009-10-02T02:47:00.000-07:00

Known also as vitamin B complex, these are fragile, water-soluble substances, several of which are particularly important to carbohydrate metabolism.

Vitamin B1
Thiamine, or vitamin B1, a colorless, crystalline substance, acts as a catalyst in carbohydrate metabolism, enabling pyruvic acid to be absorbed and carbohydrates to release their energy. Thiamine also plays a role in the synthesis of nerve-regulating substances. Deficiency in thiamine causes beriberi, which is characterized by muscular weakness, swelling of the heart, and leg cramps and may, in severe cases, lead to heart failure and death. Foods richest in thiamine are pork, organ meats (liver, heart, and kidney), brewer's yeast, lean meats, eggs, leafy green vegetables, whole or enriched cereals, wheat germ, berries, nuts, and legumes. Milling of cereal removes those portions of the grain richest in thiamine; consequently, white flour and polished white rice may be lacking in the vitamin. Widespread enrichment of flour and cereal products has largely eliminated the risk of thiamine deficiency, although it still occurs today in nutritionally deficient alcoholics.

Vitamin B2
Riboflavin, or vitamin B2, like thiamine, serves as a coenzyme—one that must combine with a portion of another enzyme to be effective—in the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and, especially, respiratory proteins. It also serves in the maintenance of mucous membranes. Riboflavin deficiency may be complicated by a deficiency of other B vitamins; its symptoms, which are not as definite as those of a lack of thiamine, are skin lesions, especially around the nose and lips, and sensitivity to light. The best sources of riboflavin are liver, milk, meat, dark green vegetables, whole grain and enriched cereals, pasta, bread, and mushrooms.

Vitamin B3
Niacin, also known as nicotinic acid and vitamin B3, also works as a coenzyme in the release of energy from nutrients. A deficiency of niacin causes pellagra, the first symptom of which is a sunburnlike eruption that breaks out where the skin is exposed to sunlight. Later symptoms are a red and swollen tongue, diarrhea, mental confusion, irritability, and, when the central nervous system is affected, depression and mental disturbances. The best sources of niacin are liver, poultry, meat, canned tuna and salmon, whole grain and enriched cereals, dried beans and peas, and nuts. The body also makes niacin from the amino acid tryptophan. In large amounts it reduces levels of cholesterol in the blood, and it has been used extensively in preventing and treating arteriosclerosis. Large doses over long periods cause liver damage.

Vitamin B6
Pyridoxine, or vitamin B6, is necessary for the absorption and metabolism of amino acids. It also plays roles in the use of fats in the body and in the formation of red blood cells. Pyridoxine deficiency is characterized by skin disorders, cracks at the mouth corners, smooth tongue, convulsions, dizziness, nausea, anemia, and kidney stones. The best sources of pyridoxine are whole (but not enriched) grains, cereals, bread, liver, avocadoes, spinach, green beans, and bananas. Pyridoxine is needed in proportion to the amount of protein consumed.

Vitamin B12
Cobalamin, or vitamin B12, one of the most recently isolated vitamins, is necessary in minute amounts for the formation of nucleoproteins, proteins, and red blood cells, and for the functioning of the nervous system. Cobalamin deficiency is often due to the inability of the stomach to produce glycoprotein, which aids in the absorption of this vitamin. Pernicious anemia results, with its characteristic symptoms of ineffective production of red blood cells, faulty myelin (nerve sheath) synthesis, and loss of epithelium (membrane lining) of the intestinal tract. Cobalamin is obtained only from animal sources—liver, kidneys, meat, fish, eggs, and milk. Vegetarians are advised to take vitamin B12 supplements.

Other B Vitamins
Folic acid, or folacin, is a coenzyme needed for forming body protein and hemoglobin. Recent investigations show that folic acid deficiency may be responsible for neural tube defects, a type of birth defect that results in severe brain or neurological disorders. Folic acid is effective in the treatment of certain anemias and sprue. Dietary sources are organ meats, leafy green vegetables, legumes, nuts, whole grains, and brewer's yeast. Folic acid is lost in foods stored at room temperature and during cooking. Unlike other water-soluble vitamins, folic acid is stored in the liver and need not be consumed daily.

Pantothenic acid, another B vitamin, plays a still-undefined role in the metabolism of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. It is abundant in many foods and is manufactured by intestinal bacteria as well.

Biotin, a B vitamin that is also synthesized by intestinal bacteria and widespread in foods, plays a role in the formation of fatty acids and the release of energy from carbohydrates. Its deficiency in humans is unknown.

Vitamin A

2009-10-02T02:43:00.000-07:00

Vitamin A is a pale yellow primary alcohol derived from carotene. It affects the formation and maintenance of skin, mucous membranes, bones, and teeth; vision; and reproduction. An early deficiency symptom is night blindness (difficulty in adapting to darkness); other symptoms are excessive skin dryness; lack of mucous membrane secretion, causing susceptibility to bacterial invasion; and dryness of the eyes due to a malfunctioning of the tear glands,

The body obtains vitamin A in two ways. One is by manufacturing it from carotene, a vitamin precursor found in such vegetables as carrots, broccoli, squash, spinach, kale, and sweet potatoes. The other is by absorbing ready-made vitamin A from plant-eating organisms. In animal form, vitamin A is found in milk, butter, cheese, egg yolk, liver, and fish-liver oil. Excess vitamin A can interfere with growth, stop menstruation, damage red blood corpuscles, and cause skin rashes, headaches, nausea, and jaundice.

Undulant Fever

2009-10-02T02:27:00.000-07:00

Undulant Fever, also known as brucellosis, infectious disease caused by various species of bacteria of the genus Brucella, transmitted to humans from lower animals, especially cattle, hogs, and goats. Human beings acquire the disease through contact with infected animals or by drinking their raw milk. The disease has been known as Malta fever, Bang's disease, Mediterranean fever, rock fever, and goat fever. In animals the disease generally can cause partial sterility, decreased milk supply, and abortion of a fetus. In humans undulant fever assumes acute and chronic forms. The acute form is characterized by weakness, chills, and high night fevers and often results in central nervous system disorders, painful joints, and miscarriage.

Chronic undulant fever is difficult to diagnose, as the symptoms are exceedingly varied and vague. A diagnostic blood agglutination test is available. As a rule human beings suffering from undulant fever respond favorably to the administration of broad-spectrum antibiotics. The pasteurization of milk is essential to the control of undulant fever.

Ulcerative Colitis

2009-10-02T02:24:00.000-07:00

Ulcerative Colitis, a chronic disease of unknown cause in which the lining of the colon and rectum becomes severely inflamed and eventually wears away, forming shallow sores known as ulcers. Frequently the colon is permanently damaged. Ulcerative colitis, together with a related condition called Crohn’s disease, are generally referred to as inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs).

Most people with ulcerative colitis have inflammation in their descending colon, the section of the large intestine stretching from the left side of the abdomen to the pelvis, and in the sigmoid colon, the section of the intestine that is joined to the rectum. Some people have inflammation and ulceration in all of the large intestine. The disease does not affect the small intestine.

Most people have only mild or moderate forms of the disease, with symptoms that include rectal bleeding, diarrhea, and feces that contains mucus, all of which are easily controlled with medication. People with a more severe form of the disease have extensive diarrhea, stomach pain, and fever, and they also tend to suffer from such problems as arthritis, liver problems, and leg ulcers. Patients with ulcerative colitis involving the whole colon that has lasted for more than ten years are at major risk for cancer.

Tumor

2009-10-02T02:18:00.000-07:00

Tumor, broadly interpreted, any abnormal local increase in size of a tissue or organ. Medical research at the microscopic level, however, has made clear that swelling can be due either to the infiltration of cells from another part of the body or to the proliferation of cells originating within the affected site itself; only the latter circumstance is called a tumor.

Tumors are classified as either benign or malignant, although the benign-malignant distinction is not universally useful. The most important property rendering a tumor malignant is the ability to invade nearby or distant tissues; this spread to distant tissues is called metastasis, and it usually occurs by means of the blood or lymph vessels. Some so-called benign tumors can kill without metastasizing. Chief among these are brain tumors called gliomas, which can grow large enough to exert substantial pressure on nearby brain structures and destroy respiratory function. A liver tumor can kill by destroying the vital functions of that organ, even without metastasis. Cells in malignant tumors are also sometimes said to have lost their characteristic function, but blood cells form tumors, called myelomas, in which the cells retain the ability to form antibodies. Tumors of the uterus, called hydatidiform moles, are benign, but they can be forerunners of the cancer called choriocarcinoma. The clearest cases of benign tumors are skin moles and warts.

Trypanosomiasis

2009-10-02T02:14:00.000-07:00

Trypanosomiasis, also sleeping sickness, endemic, and sometimes epidemic, chronic disease caused by a protozoan blood parasite, genus Trypanosoma. In cattle and other animals, which serve as the reservoir for the protozoa, the disease is called nagana. Two variations of the disease occur in central and western Africa, both of them transmitted in the salivary glands of infected tsetse flies. The most common is caused by T. brucei gambiense, whereas a more local version is caused by T. brucei rhodesiense.

African sleeping sickness begins with a chancre at the site of the insect bite, an accelerated heartbeat, an enlargement of the spleen, and rash and fever. Over the next few months the nervous system is attacked, with accompanying mood changes, sleepiness, lack of appetite, eventual coma, and, frequently, death. Chagas' disease, which more frequently attacks children, also involves fever and damage to the spleen and nervous system, as well as to the liver and the heart muscles. It is also sometimes fatal. In early stages, African sleeping sickness can be alleviated by the administration of various antiparasitic drugs; treatment in later stages with arsenic-containing drugs is less likely to be effective.

Encephalitis is also sometimes called sleeping sickness.

Trench Mouth

2009-10-02T02:11:00.000-07:00

Trench Mouth, acute infectious disorder of the mucous membranes of the mouth and throat, so called from its prevalence among World War I soldiers. It is characterized by painful ulcerations. Predisposing factors for infection include poor oral hygiene. The main causative organisms are the bacillus Fusiformis dentium and the spirillum Borrelia vincenti. Painful and bleeding gums are the chief symptoms, and they are usually accompanied by malodorous breath and an unpleasant taste in the mouth. Treatment consists of relieving the painful symptoms of the acute bacterial state and correcting local and systemic predisposing causes of the disease. Antibiotics are usually effective in controlling the infection.

Toxic Shock Syndrome

2009-10-02T02:07:00.000-07:00

Toxic Shock Syndrome (TSS), rare disease associated with strains of the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus, a common inhabitant of the skin, oral cavity, and vagina. Under certain conditions the bacterium produces a toxin that apparently attacks the immune system through the bloodstream, in turn permitting more toxin to be produced. Liver function is also altered, resulting in liver and kidney damage. Symptoms of TSS include rash, high fever, lowered blood pressure, diarrhea, and vomiting. TSS has caused death in about 3 percent of reported cases. The disease can be treated with antibiotics.

Toxemia

2009-10-02T02:06:00.000-07:00

Toxemia, poisoned condition of the blood caused by the presence of toxic materials, usually bacterial but occasionally chemical or hormonal in nature. When bacteria themselves find entrance into the bloodstream, the condition is known as bacteremia. Toxins are not due to absorption of putrefied or fermented foodstuffs, nor are they absorbed from the colon in conditions of constipation.

The term toxemia is also sometimes applied to preeclampsia, a condition that occasionally occurs in late pregnancy and is characterized by high blood pressure and kidney malfunction.

Thrush

2009-10-02T02:04:00.000-07:00

Thrush (medicine), fungal infection characterized by creamy-white, curdlike patches on the tongue and other mucosal surfaces of the mouth. The disease is caused by an overgrowth of Candida albicans, a species of yeast that normally inhabits the mucous membranes as a benign saprophyte. Those most susceptible to thrush include adults whose immune systems have been weakened by antibiotics, steroids, or, most commonly, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Infants can become infected during birth if the mother has a vaginal yeast infection.

When the curdlike discharge is removed from patches of thrush, raw and bleeding areas are visible and can be especially painful. If left untreated, these superficial lesions may allow the yeast to spread to other areas of the body. In cases of severe immunosuppression or prolonged antibiotic therapy, the organism can invade the major organs, causing serious complications. Diagnosis requires microscopic identification of the pseudomycelial (branching-arms) forms. Generally, thrush is treated with a topical agent such as miconazole or clotrimazole.

Thiamine

2009-10-02T02:02:00.000-07:00

Thiamine, also called vitamin B1, a substance that enables carbohydrates in the body to release the energy required for cellular function, known as metabolism. Thiamine also plays a vital role in the activities of enzymes, proteins that are involved in bodily processes such as digestion. Good sources of thiamine include wheat germ, dry beans, peas, enriched cereals and breads, pasta, nuts, eggs, and most vegetables. Lean pork is one of the best sources of the vitamin, as are organ meats, such as liver.

Thiamine deficiency is a risk for the elderly, for people of all ages who participate in strenuous exercise, and for those who are severely ill. A severe lack of thiamine causes the vitamin-deficiency disease known as beriberi, a neurological and cardiovascular disorder characterized by muscular weakness, swelling of the heart, leg cramps, and, in severe cases, heart failure and death. Thiamine deficiency in severe alcoholics (a result of malnutrition) may lead to a central nervous system condition known as Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome, which can cause paralysis of the eye muscles, extreme memory loss, and dementia.

Tetanus

2009-10-02T01:57:00.000-07:00

Tetanus, serious infectious disease of the nervous system, in which a bacterial toxin causes severe muscle spasm. Also called lockjaw, the bacterial infection occurs when wounds are contaminated with a bacillus, Clostridium tetani, which is found everywhere but which is especially likely to be present in street dirt. It is an anaerobic bacillus—that is, one that lives without oxygen, and thus when introduced into human tissue, usually at the time of an injury, it can multiply where the oxygen is deficient. This occurs both in deep, penetrating wounds and in crushing wounds with extensive tissue destruction. As the bacillus multiplies, large amounts of exotoxin are released into the surrounding tissues.

The incubation period varies from two weeks to several months, but generally is about two weeks. The first symptoms are usually headache and depression, followed by difficulty in swallowing and in opening the jaws. Stiffness of the neck develops and gradually a spasm of the cheek muscles sets the face in a peculiar, sardonic grin. Eventually, the spasms spread to other muscles of the body.

Treatment, besides cleaning the wound, involves eliminating the bacilli both surgically and with antibiotics, neutralizing the exotoxin with antitoxin, reducing muscle spasm, and supporting or aiding respiration. A series of three injections is recommended if the tetanus toxoid is combined with both diphtheria and toxoid pertussis (whooping cough) vaccine in the commonly administered DTP (diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis) injections. The supplementary booster injections should be given one year after completion of the primary immunization series and every five to ten years thereafter.

Syphilis

2009-10-02T01:55:00.000-07:00

Syphilis, infectious disease caused by the spirochete Treponema pallidum and usually transmitted by sexual contact or kissing. Infection from contaminated objects is infrequent, because drying quickly kills the organisms. A fetus carried by a woman with syphilis may contract the disease, a condition called congenital syphilis.

Syphilis is detected by symptoms and verified by one of several tests performed on the blood or spinal fluid, the most common of which is the VDRL (venereal disease research laboratory) test. The preferred drug for treatment is benzathine penicillin, which is given in two injections one week apart for all stages but neurosyphilis. For this advanced stage, the antibiotic is given three times at weekly intervals. Syphilis control includes tracking down all sexual contacts of infected persons and treating those who had contact during the infectious period. Use of condoms offers some protection against contracting syphilis.

Streptococcus

2009-10-02T01:54:00.000-07:00

Streptococcus, genus of spherical, gram-positive, aerobic bacteria. The streptococci occur in pairs or chains, and some species are pathogenic in humans. Streptococcal infections include strep throat, scarlet fever, erysipelas, puerperal fever, and some pneumonias. The drugs of choice for treating such infections are penicillin and erythromycin. Cultures of nonpathogenic lactic streptococci are used in the fermentation of dairy products such as cheese and buttermilk.

Smallpox

2009-10-02T01:52:00.000-07:00

Smallpox, highly contagious viral disease that is often fatal. The disease is chiefly characterized by a skin rash that develops on the face, chest, back, and limbs. Over the course of a week the rash develops into pustular (pus-filled) pimples resembling boils. In extreme cases the pustular pimples run together—usually an indication of a fatal infection. Death may result from a secondary bacterial infection of the pustules, from cell damage caused by the viral infection, or from heart attack or shock. In the latter stages of nonfatal cases, smallpox pustules become crusted, often leaving the survivor with permanent, pitted scars.

Smallpox is caused by a virus. An infected person spreads virus particles into the air in the form of tiny droplets emitted from the mouth by speaking, coughing, or simply breathing. The virus can then infect anyone who inhales the droplets. By this means, smallpox can spread extremely rapidly from person to person.

Sickle-Cell Anemia

2009-10-02T01:49:00.000-07:00

Sickle-Cell Anemia, genetic disorder of the blood leading to frequent and severe infections, damage to major organs, and episodes of unpredictable pain in the back, chest, abdomen, and extremities. Early symptoms appear at about six months of age and may include serious infections, pain and swelling in the hands and feet, and enlargement of the abdomen and heart.

Sickle-cell anemia is caused by a defective gene that produces an abnormal form of hemoglobin, the component of red blood cells responsible for transporting oxygen from the lungs to the tissues. The abnormal hemoglobin, called hemoglobin S, distorts red blood cells after they release oxygen in the tissues. These distorted cells are called sickled cells because of their resemblance to the sickle, a type of crescent-shaped cutting blade used in agriculture. The sickled shape makes it difficult for these cells to pass through tiny blood vessels, resulting in intensely painful blockages that prevent vital oxygen and nutrients in the blood from reaching organs and tissues, impairing their function. As a result, sickle-cell patients are also vulnerable to a number of infections. When the blood flow to the brain is affected, sickle-cell patients may experience brain damage, such as stroke. Sickle cells also break apart more readily than healthy red blood cells, leading to a deficiency of red blood cells, known as anemia.

Sickle-cell anemia is an autosomal recessive genetic disease—that is, a child with the disease must inherit one copy of the defective hemoglobin gene from each parent. Many people carry one hemoglobin S gene with no significant health problems as a result. But these carriers of the sickle-cell gene can pass the gene to their children. When both parents are carriers, they have a one in four chance with every pregnancy of having a child with sickle-cell anemia.

Scurvy

2009-10-02T01:48:00.000-07:00

Scurvy, disease of human beings caused by a prolonged deficiency of vitamin C, or ascorbic acid, in the diet. It is characterized by progressive bodily weakness, spongy and inflamed gums, loose teeth, swollen and tender joints, and a tendency toward ecchymosis, or absorption by the tissues of blood from ruptured blood vessels. Anemia often occurs as a direct result of such hemorrhage. Lack of vitamin C in the diet prevents the formation of connective tissues that hold the body's structures together, such as tendons, ligaments, bone, dentin, and cartilage. The disease may appear in adults after about six months of complete lack of vitamin C.

Schistosomiasis

2009-10-02T01:47:00.000-07:00

Schistosomiasis or Bilharziasis, widespread disease caused by the infestation of the human body by (flukes) commonly called blood flukes, of the genus Schistosoma. Blood flukes spend most of their life cycle in two hosts; the adult stage is spent in a mammal, usually humans, and the immature stages are spent in certain snails. Eggs discharged from the host hatch into larval forms in fresh water; from the water, the larvae, miracidia, invade the snail that acts as an intermediate host. The larval form of the parasite undergoes partial maturation in the snail, then escapes back into the water, as mature larvae called cercariae. At this stage they penetrate the skin of the host from the water and then migrate through the blood vessels to specific capillaries as maturation completes. There they remain and lay eggs.

Rickets

2009-10-02T01:46:00.000-07:00

Rickets, nutritional disorder characterized by skeletal deformities. Rickets is caused by a decreased concentration of the mineral hydroxyapatite in bones and cartilage due to low levels of calcium and phosphorus in the blood. Vitamin D is essential for the maintenance of normal calcium and phosphorus levels. Classic rickets, a deficiency disease of children characterized by improper development or hardening of bones, is due to lack of sufficient vitamin D in the diet, or to insufficient ultraviolet radiation from direct sunlight, a lack that prevents conversion of the element 7-dehydrocholesterol in the skin to vitamin D. The type of skeletal deformities depends largely on the child's age when the vitamin-D deficiency occurs. A child who has not yet learned to walk develops vertebral curvatures; a walking child develops leg curvatures.

Riboflavin

2009-10-02T01:41:00.000-07:00

Riboflavin, also called vitamin B2 or vitamin G, a substance essential for the breakdown and utilization of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins in the body, and in the production of energy. Riboflavin plays a vital role in the health of the skin and is needed for production of certain hormones by the adrenal glands, the pair of hormone-secreting organs that sit on top of each kidney. Because it is a water-soluble vitamin—that is, it is not stored in the body, but is excreted in sweat or urine—riboflavin needs to be constantly replaced in the body.

Rich sources of riboflavin include milk, cheese and yogurt, lean meat, liver, green leafy vegetables, eggs, and enriched breads and cereals. Because cheese and milk are such good dietary sources of the vitamin, lactose-intolerant people, including many of the elderly, are vulnerable to deficiency problems. Individuals who exercise often, especially women, are also at risk for riboflavin deficiency. A lack of riboflavin in the diet may result in inflammation, scaling, and blistering of the skin—symptoms characteristic of such conditions as dermatitis and eczema. Other problems can include general fatigue, burning eyes, cracks and sores in mouth and on the lips, and digestive problems.

Tracheotomy

2009-10-01T20:13:00.000-07:00

Tracheotomy, surgical operation in which an incision, or opening, is cut through the front of the neck and into the trachea, or windpipe. The oldest mention of the operation in medical literature is found in the writings of the Greek physician Galen (2nd century ad).

A tracheotomy creates an alternate passage to the lungs for air that cannot flow from the nose and mouth through the trachea because of an obstruction. Obstructions may occur when a foreign body lodges in the larynx, or voice box, above the trachea; as a result of swelling or spasm of the larynx or vocal cords; or from infection and swelling of the epiglottis, the thin flap of cartilage covering that keeps food and liquid out of the trachea.

The purpose of a tracheostomy is to keep the airway from closing prematurely and to enable the physician to take further measures, if necessary, to ensure that the patient has a patent airway. When a tracheotomy is performed on a patient suffering from severe bronchial or lung congestion, a catheter, or small-diameter, flexible tube, is inserted through the stationary tube and used with a suction device to clean out the bronchial tubes and lungs while the patient is encouraged to cough vigorously.

Syringe

2009-10-01T20:09:00.000-07:00

Syringe, device used to eject or collect fluids. A syringe consists of a hollow barrel made of glass, plastic, or metal with a close-fitting plunger or a rubber bulb on one end. The other end of the barrel has a nozzle which may be designed to accept a needle or other attachment. The barrel fills by suction when the plunger is pulled out, or when the bulb is compressed and subsequently allowed to inflate. Pushing in the plunger or squeezing the bulb forces the fluid out through the needle or nozzle.

Syringes come in many sizes and serve many purposes. The small syringe used in medicine to give hypodermic injections (forceful introduction of medication or fluid beneath the skin) has a plunger and a fine hollow needle. Its barrel is calibrated, featuring a set of equally spaced marks that measure the volume of its contents. The larger medical syringes used to cleanse wounds or body cavities, or to extract unwanted fluids from the body, have wider, flexible nozzles on one end and rubber bulbs on the other end.

Sharing unsterilized syringes can cause serious health problems. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which may lead to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), has been spread by infected substance abusers who share the same syringe to inject intravenous drugs. The viruses that cause hepatitis A and hepatitis B, both of which inflame the liver, are also commonly transmitted through the use of shared needles and syringes.

Phobia

2009-09-13T04:08:00.000-07:00

Phobia, intense and persistent fear of a specific object, situation, or activity. Because of this intense and persistent fear, the phobic person often leads a constricted life. The anxiety is typically out of proportion to the real situation, and the victim is fully aware that the fear is irrational.

Behavioral techniques have proved successful in treating phobias, especially simple and social phobias. One technique, systematic desensitization, involves gradually confronting the phobic person with situations or objects that are increasingly close to the feared ones. Exposure therapy, another behavioral method, has recently been shown more effective. In this technique, phobics are repeatedly exposed to the feared situation or object so that they can see that no harm befalls them; the fear gradually fades. Antianxiety drugs have also been used as palliatives. Antidepressant drugs have also proved successful in treating some phobias.

Phenytoin

2009-09-13T04:05:00.000-07:00

Phenytoin or Dilantin, drug used to treat the seizures, or violent muscle contractions, caused by epilepsy. The drug can also control seizures associated with surgery of the brain or spinal cord. Phenytoin influences the movement of sodium along nerve fibers, preventing or minimizing the abnormal electrical impulses that cause seizures.

Phenytoin is available by prescription in tablet, capsule, and liquid form. Taken orally, except for one liquid form made for injection, the drug is usually prescribed in 100-mg doses taken once a day. The maximum recommended daily dosage is 600 mg. To avoid stomach irritation, oral phenytoin should be taken with food. The drug’s effectiveness is usually apparent after two to three weeks of treatment.

Patients with impaired liver function, diabetes, or heart disease should use this drug with caution. Although long-term use of phenytoin is common, it may be associated with the development of cancers in the lymphatic system or the bone marrow (leukemia). Pregnant women or those nursing an infant should not take this drug. Children who take it should be monitored with particular care.

Possible side effects include decreased coordination, mental confusion, or slurred speech. Other observed side effects include nausea, headache, fever, dizziness, twitching, involuntary eye movement, joint pain, insomnia, impotence, bedwetting, abnormal hair growth, skin rash, or change in urine color. An overdose of phenytoin can be fatal. Abruptly stopping treatment can cause uninterrupted seizures that may also be fatal.

Phenytoin may interact adversely with a variety of medications. These include, but are not limited to, aspirin, certain tranquilizers, steroids, blood thinners, ulcer medications, oral contraceptives, estrogens, and antacids. Also included are the drugs felbamate, furosemide, methylphenidate, phenobarbital, carbamazepine, diazepam, doxycycline, sodium valproate, theophylline, and valproic acid. Users of phenytoin should not drink alcoholic beverages.

Brand Name:Dilantin

Pelvic Inflammatory Disease

2009-09-13T04:00:00.000-07:00

Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID), bacterial infection of the upper female genital tract, including the uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries. PID can be caused by several different aerobic (oxygen-requiring) and anaerobic (non-oxygen-requiring) bacteria. The two most important such bacteria are Neisseria gonorrhoeae, the bacterium that causes gonorrhea, and Chlamydia trachomatis, the bacterium that causes chlamydia. These bacteria are usually transmitted through sexual intercourse with an infected partner.

The usual symptoms of acute PID are fever, chills, lower abdominal and pelvic pain, and vaginal discharge or bleeding. These symptoms often begin a few days after the start of a menstrual period, particularly when Neisseria gonorrhoeae is the cause of infection. Infections due to Chlamydia trachomatis usually progress more slowly than those caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae. On physical examination by a doctor, the uterus, ovaries, and fallopian tubes of the infected person are usually tender. In severe cases, an abscess may be present in the pelvis. Complications from PID occur in one out of four infected women and include tuboovarian abscess, Fitz-Hugh-Curtis syndrome (inflammation surrounding the liver), chronic pelvic pain, and occasionally death. In addition, PID is the single most important risk factor for ectopic pregnancy.and one of the most common causes of female infertility.

Antibiotic therapy is the usual treatment for PID. Most women take oral antibiotics such as intramuscular ceftriaxone, and oral doxycycline and metronidazole for a period of 10 to 14 days, after which they are cured. Women who are severely ill are usually treated with intravenous antibiotic therapy in the hospital. A woman's sexual partner should also be treated with antibiotics.

Paralysis

2009-09-13T03:57:00.000-07:00

Paralysis, loss of voluntary movement in a part of the human body, caused by disease or injury anywhere along the motor-nerve path from the brain to the muscle fiber. Paralysis may result from injury, poisoning, infection, hemorrhage, occluded blood vessels, or tumors. Occasionally paralysis is due to congenital deficiency in motor-nerve development. Permanent paralysis results from extensive damage to nerve cells or to a nerve trunk; severely damaged nerve cells cannot regenerate. Transient or incomplete paralysis, called paresis, is often caused by infections, trauma, or poisons that temporarily suppress motor activity but do not extensively damage nerve cells.

Because most of the motor nerves from either half of the brain supply the opposite side of the body, lesions in one part of the brain usually produce paralyses in the opposite half of the body. Paralysis of one limb is known as monoplegia; paralysis of two limbs on the same side of the body as hemiplegia; paralysis of both lower limbs as paraplegia or diplegia; and paralysis of all four limbs as quadriplegia or tetraplegia. Paralysis originating in the brain may sometimes be flaccid, that is, the affected muscles may be loose, weak, flabby, and without normal reflexes. More frequently it is spastic, that is, the affected muscles are rigid and the reflexes accentuated. Paralysis originating in a motor nerve of the spinal cord is always spastic; paralysis originating in peripheral nerves or thin ganglion cells is always flaccid.

Among well-known paralytic conditions are poliomyelitis (previously known as infantile paralysis), cerebral palsy, and multiple sclerosis. Bell's palsy is a common facial paralysis, generally temporary and produced by such conditions as neuritis or infection. Locomotor ataxia is a paralytic condition caused by infestation of the spinal cord and brain with microorganisms that cause syphilis. Alcoholic paralysis is caused by degeneration of nerve cells, in the spinal cord or, less often, in the brain, which have been deprived of essential nutrients.

Temporary paralyses are treated by removing the underlying cause. Permanent paralyses may be ameliorated by appropriate physical therapy and rehabilitation procedures.

Panic Disorder

2009-09-13T03:55:00.000-07:00

Panic Disorder, mental illness in which a person experiences repeated, unexpected panic attacks and persistent anxiety about the possibility that the panic attacks will recur. A panic attack is a period of intense fear, apprehension, or discomfort. In panic disorder, the attacks usually occur without warning. Symptoms include a racing heart, shortness of breath, trembling, choking or smothering sensations, and fears of “going crazy,” losing control, or dying from a heart attack. Panic attacks may last from a few seconds to several hours. Most peak within 10 minutes and end within 20 or 30 minutes.

Pain

2009-09-13T03:54:00.000-07:00

Pain, unpleasant sensory and emotional experience caused by real or potential injury or damage to the body or described in terms of such damage. Scientists believe that pain evolved in the animal kingdom as a valuable three-part warning system. First, it warns of injury. Second, pain protects against further injury by causing a reflexive withdrawal from the source of injury. Finally, pain leads to a period of reduced activity, enabling injuries to heal more efficiently.

Pain is difficult to measure in humans because it has an emotional, or psychological component as well as a physical component. Some people express extreme discomfort from relatively small injuries, while others show little or no pain even after suffering severe injury. Sometimes pain is present even though no injury is apparent at all, or pain lingers long after an injury appears to have healed.

Osteoporosis

2009-09-13T03:50:00.000-07:00

Osteoporosis, bone condition characterized by a decrease in mass, resulting in bones that are more porous and more easily fractured than normal bones. Fractures of the wrist, spine, and hip are most common; however, all bones can be affected. White females are the most susceptible, but other risk factors include low calcium intake; inadequate physical activity; certain drugs, such as corticosteroids, and a family history of the disease.

The most common form of the disease, primary osteoporosis, includes postmenopausal (see Menopause), or estrogen-deficient, osteoporosis (Type I), which is observed in women whose ovaries have ceased to produce the hormone estrogen; age-related osteoporosis (Type II), which affects those over the age of 70; and idiopathic osteoporosis, a rare disorder of unknown cause that affects premenopausal women and men who are middle-aged or younger. Secondary osteoporosis may be caused by bone disuse as a result of paralysis or other conditions, including weightlessness in space; endocrine and nutritional disorders, including anorexia nervosa; specific disease processes; and certain drug therapies.

Prevention and treatment of osteoporosis include synthetic estrogen or progestin therapy or both for postmenopausal women, intake of calcium and other nutrients, weight-bearing exercise, and drugs such as calcitonin and alendronate sodium, a nonhormonal treatment for osteoporosis.

Osteomyelitis

2009-09-13T03:47:00.000-07:00

Osteomyelitis, term applied to any inflammation of bone or bone marrow, usually caused by infection by such microorganisms as Staphylococcus aureus, various streptococci, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and a host of others, as well as several fungi. The microorganisms generally reach the bone through the bloodstream from infection elsewhere. Occasionally osteomyelitis occurs by direct infection after surgery, after a compound fracture, or as a result of trauma.

Osteomyelitis, especially bacterial, may occur as an acute disease. Common symptoms include chills followed by fever, with acute pain and swelling above the site of inflammation. The inflammation begins in the marrow cavity and causes softening and erosion of the long bones, often with the formation of pus-containing abscesses, and soon spreads over the entire bone, with consequent death of the hard portions of the bone.

Chronic osteomyelitis, as is often seen in tuberculosis, fungus infections, or in patients with bacterial infections from other organisms, tends to run a slower and less dramatic course, with less severe pain and less fever, often resulting in bone destruction.

Acute osteomyelitis is treated by injections of antibiotics such as nafcillin, and by concurrent surgery to open the affected bone and drain the pus and dead tissue. Because of antibiotics, severe acute osteomyelitis is rare.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

2009-09-13T03:46:00.000-07:00

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, mental illness in which a person experiences recurrent, intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and feels compelled to perform certain behaviors (compulsions) again and again. Most people have experienced bizarre or inappropriate thoughts and have engaged in repetitive behaviors at times. However, people with obsessive-compulsive disorder find that their disturbing thoughts and behaviors consume large amounts of time, cause them anxiety and distress, and interfere with their ability to function at work and in social activities. Most people with this disorder recognize that their obsessions and compulsions are irrational but cannot suppress them.

Treatment for obsessive-compulsive disorder includes psychotherapy, psychoactive drugs, or both. Mental health professionals consider exposure and response prevention, a type of cognitive-behavioral therapy, to be the most effective form of psychotherapy for this disorder.

Medications to treat obsessive-compulsive disorder include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, such as fluoxetine (Prozac) and fluvoxamine (Luvox). A tricyclic antidepressant, clomipramine (Anafranil), also helps relieve symptoms of the disorder.

Obesity

2009-09-13T03:43:00.000-07:00

Obesity, medical condition characterized by storage of excess body fat. The human body naturally stores fat tissue under the skin and around organs and joints. Fat is critical for good health because it is a source of energy when the body lacks the energy necessary to sustain life processes, and it provides insulation and protection for internal organs. But the accumulation of too much fat in the body is associated with a variety of health problems.

A calorie is the unit used to measure the energy value of food and the energy used by the body to maintain normal functions. When the calories from food intake equal the calories of energy the body uses, weight remains constant. But when a person consumes more calories than the body needs, the body stores those additional calories as fat, causing subsequent weight gain. Consuming about 3,500 calories more than what the body needs results in a weight gain of 0.45 kg (1 lb) of fat.

Obesity can become a chronic lifelong condition caused by overeating, physical inactivity, and even genetic makeup. No matter what the cause, however, obesity can be prevented or managed with a combination of diet, exercise, behavior modification, and in severe cases, weight-loss medications and surgery.

Neuritis

2009-09-13T03:38:00.000-07:00

Neuritis, inflammation of peripheral nerves, characterized by sensory or motor disturbances that may take the form of pain (often burning), numbness, tingling (or pins-and-needles) sensations, hypersensitivity, or anesthesia, in the area supplied by the involved nerve; weakness or paralysis of the muscles innervated by the involved nerve may also take place. It is generally the result of such localized causes as injuries, pressure from arthritis involving the spine at the area where the nerve root exits, adjacent tumors, or prolonged exposure to extreme cold. Neuritis may also involve several nerves in different parts of the body. This type of neuritis usually affects the extremities. Infectious diseases, such as typhoid fever, malaria, syphilis, or tuberculosis, and diabetes, heavy-metal poisoning, alcoholism, vitamin deficiencies associated with pregnancy, beriberi, and pellagra are among the causes of certain types of neuritis.

Neuralgia

2009-09-13T03:36:00.000-07:00

Neuralgia, recurrent pain along the path of a sensory nerve. Neuralgia may be caused by a disorder that affects a nerve, such as tooth decay or carpal tunnel syndrome, or it may accompany such diseases as diabetes mellitus or certain vitamin deficiencies. In some cases the cause of neuralgia cannot be determined. Whatever the cause, the affected nerve does not become inflamed and its tissues are not damaged or destroyed.

Trigeminal neuralgia is one of the most common forms of neuralgia, involving the trigeminal nerve, which carries sensation from the face, eyes, nose, mouth, and jaws to the brain. Trigeminal neuralgia is characterized by overwhelming sensations of stabbing pain that may be momentary or may last for minutes or hours. When it is short-lived, the condition is also known as tic douloureux. Trigeminal neuralgia may be relieved by analgesics such as aspirin, ibuprofen, and acetaminophen. In severe cases, surgery may be performed to reduce pressure on the nerve or to sever it.

In postherpetic neuralgia, pain occurs at a site earlier affected by herpes zoster, or shingles, in which blisters develop on the skin along the path of a nerve. Postherpetic neuralgia may last for weeks or months after the illness, but the pain may be alleviated with analgesics.

Myasthenia Gravis

2009-09-13T03:33:00.000-07:00

Myasthenia Gravis, chronic disease marked by progressive weakness and abnormally rapid fatigue of the voluntary muscles. The muscles affected include those used in walking, breathing, chewing, and talking. A characteristic sign of the disease is drooping eyelids. Myasthenia gravis most often affects women between the ages of 20 and 30, but it can strike anyone after adolescence; after 40, it actually afflicts more men than women.

Myasthenia gravis is a noninherited autoimmune disease characterized by the presence of antibodies in the blood that destroy muscle-cell sites for the reception of acetylcholine molecules. Acetylcholine normally transmits signals between nerves and muscles, so when its receptors are destroyed it cannot induce muscle contractions. No cure for the disease yet exists, but it can be treated with drugs called anticholinesterases. These drugs are capable of inhibiting an enzyme, acetylcholinesterase, that breaks down acetylcholine in the body. Myasthenia gravis may also be relieved by surgical removal of the thymus and by a blood-cleansing process called plasmapheresis that eliminates the destructive antibodies.

Muscular Dystrophy

2009-09-13T03:31:00.000-07:00

Muscular Dystrophy, crippling disease characterized by gradual wasting of skeletal muscle. As the disease progresses, symptoms include increased weakness and loss of muscle mass and function. Eventually a person with muscular dystrophy needs to use a wheelchair to move around. Four clinical forms of the disease are recognized, based on pattern of inheritance, age when symptoms are first noted, and distribution of the muscles earliest involved. Microscopic abnormalities of skeletal muscle are found in each type.

Muscular dystrophy has its origin in a genetic mutation, but the biochemical steps by which this genetic defect manifests itself in the degenerative process in the muscle are not known. Because specific treatment is not available, general measures, including physical and occupational therapy, are used. Genetic tests for mutations in the different genes causing muscular dystrophy provide rapid and accurate diagnosis for patients.

Malnutrition

2009-09-13T03:30:00.000-07:00

Malnutrition, dietary condition caused by a deficiency or excess of one or more essential nutrients in the diet. Malnutrition is characterized by a wide array of health problems, including extreme weight loss, stunted growth, weakened resistance to infection, and impairment of intellect. Severe cases of malnutrition can lead to death.

Deficiency diseases are usually associated with lack of vitamins or minerals. The effects of a vitamin or mineral deficiency on the body depend on the function of the particular nutrient lacking. For example, vitamin A is important for good vision, and severe deficiency of this vitamin may cause blindness. Because some vitamins and minerals have many functions, prolonged nutritional deficiencies can therefore have wide-ranging effects on health.

Diets that lack a wide variety of foods may result in vitamin deficiency diseases. For example, in countries where people eat maize as the staple food and only few other foods, diets may lack niacin, a B vitamin. Such diets may cause pellagra, a deficiency disease characterized by dermatitis, diarrhea, and dementia.

Ketorolac

2009-09-13T03:21:00.000-07:00

Ketorolac, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug used in the short-term management of severe, acute pain, as well as for the short-term treatment of itchy eyes caused by seasonal allergies. Ketorolac relieves pain and reduces fever and inflammation by blocking the production of prostaglandins. It is sometimes used with a narcotic to provide better pain relief than either drug alone can offer.

This drug is available by prescription only as an injectable liquid, tablets and eye drops. The effectiveness of all forms is usually apparent in 30 to 60 minutes.

Ketorolac should be used with caution by patients with known bleeding disorders or sensitivities to other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs as well as by patients with a history of alcohol abuse, diabetes mellitus, edema, kidney or liver disease, lupus erythematosus, asthma, colitis, heart disease, or high blood pressure. The safety of this drug for pregnant or breast-feeding women or for children has not been determined. The eyedrop solution should not be used by patients wearing contact lenses. Abdominal or stomach pain, bruising at the site of injection, drowsiness, indigestion, and nausea are the most common side effects of both the oral and injected forms of the drug. Less common side effects are bloating or gas, burning or pain at the injection site, constipation, diarrhea, dizziness, a feeling of fullness in the abdominal or stomach area, headache, increased sweating, vomiting, edema, decrease in urine output, renal failure, and gastrointestinal bleeding, ulceration, and perforation.

A temporary stinging and burning sensation in the eye is the most common side effect of the eyedrop solution. Less common side effects are eye irritation, allergic reactions, superficial eye infections, and superficial inflammation of the eye’s cornea.

Ketorolac may interact adversely with aspirin, acetaminophen, and other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents, as well as with lithium, methotrexate, probenecid, ketoprofen, nabumetone, naproxen, and oxaprozin. Use of ketorolac with blood-thinning drugs, cefamandole, cefoperazone, cefotetan, heparin, moxalactam, plicamycin, or valproic acid may increase risk of bleeding.

Brand Names: Acular, Toradol

Ketoprofen

2009-09-13T03:18:00.000-07:00

Ketoprofen, drug used to reduce the inflammation, fever, and pain associated with such diseases as arthritis, bursitis, tendinitis, and menstrual cramps. Ketoprofen is believed to work by preventing prostaglandins (chemicals that cause inflammation and contribute to the brain’s perception of pain) from concentrating in body tissues.

Ketoprofen is available by prescription in capsule, tablet, and suppository form. The drug is taken daily in 3 or 4 doses for a total of 150 to 300 mg. It is most effectively absorbed if taken on an empty stomach, but it can be taken with food, milk, or an antacid to prevent stomach irritation. The patient must take ketoprofen for one to three weeks before physicians can evaluate its effectiveness.

Possible side effects include drowsiness, fluid retention, skin rash, headache, depression, indigestion, and nausea. Men may experience problems with sexual performance and breast enlargement. Women may find their menstrual cycles affected, with increased blood flow during menstruation.

Pregnant women should not use ketoprofen in the third trimester of pregnancy. Breast-feeding women, patients with allergies to the drug, those who suffer asthma with aspirin use, and patients with ulcers, bleeding disorders, impaired kidney function, or liver disease should not take ketoprofen.

Ketoprofen may have negative effects when taken with other anti-inflammatory drugs, steroids, aspirin, insulin, phenytoin, verapamil, nifedipine, lithium, and diuretics. Alcoholic beverages can increase the risk of ulcers or bleeding in the stomach.

Brand Name: Orudis

Ketoconazole

2009-09-13T03:16:00.000-07:00

Ketoconazole, prescription drug used to treat fungal infections. It works by weakening fungal cell walls, thereby either killing the fungus or stopping its growth. Ketoconazole is also used to treat prostate cancer because it suppresses the production of testosterone, a hormone necessary for prostate cancer cell survival.

Ketoconazole is available as a tablet, cream, or shampoo. Patients using the drug in tablet form take 200 to 400 mg once a day for fungal infections and 400 mg three times a day for prostate cancer. The drug should be taken with food for better absorption and to avoid stomach irritation. It must be taken for two to four weeks before a physician can evaluate its effectiveness as an antifungal agent. A cure may require many months of treatment.

Common side effects of ketoconazole include reduced testosterone production (which may impair sexual function in males), skin irritation and rash, headache, nausea, diarrhea, and liver problems. Pregnant and nursing women, patients with active liver disease, and patients who have previously had an allergic reaction to the drug should not take ketoconazole. Patients should exercise caution in taking the drug if they are allergic to related antifungal drugs, take any other drugs, have liver disease or reduced liver function, have a history of alcoholism, or have low levels of hydrochloric acid in their stomachs.

Ketoconazole enhances the blood-thinning effects of warfarin and minimizes the effects of theophylline. Antacids may lessen ketoconazole’s effectiveness. Patients who consume alcohol while taking this drug may experience dizziness, headaches, and nausea. Alcohol in combination with ketoconazole can also contribute to liver problems.

Brand Name:Nizoral

Irritable Bowel Syndrome

2009-09-13T03:13:00.000-07:00

Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS), also known as spastic colon, recurring symptoms of constipation, diarrhea, and abdominal cramping that appear without a clear cause

The diarrhea associated with IBS is not true diarrhea in that there is no increase in stool volume. Patients sometimes pass mucus with the stools and have a sensation of incomplete evacuation of the bowels following defecation.

Recurring IBS has been associated with stress, although abdominal distress is a common reaction to anxiety in many people who do not suffer from IBS.

Physicians diagnose IBS only after conducting a series of tests that rule out other gastrointestinal disorders, such as inflammatory bowel disease, intestinal parasites, and polyps. These tests include a barium enema, stool parasite culture, and sigmoidoscopy, examination of the lower intestines with a hollow, tubelike instrument passed through the anus.

There is no cure for IBS and treatment focuses on alleviating symptoms. High fiber diets or antispasmodic drugs may relieve constipation, and antidiarrheal drugs may alleviate prolonged diarrhea. Although there is no scientific evidence linking irritable bowel syndrome and the amount of fiber in the diet, some people benefit from eating a high-fiber diet, while others find reducing their carbohydrate intake helps.

Influenza

2009-09-13T03:10:00.000-07:00

Influenza, also known as flu, contagious infection primarily of the respiratory tract. Influenza is sometimes referred to as grippe. Influenza is caused by a virus transmitted from one person to another in droplets coughed or sneezed into the air. It is characterized by coldlike symptoms plus chills, fever, headaches, muscle aches, and fatigue. Most people recover completely in about a week. But some people are vulnerable to complications such as bronchitis and pneumonia. This group includes children with asthma, people with heart or lung disease, and the elderly.

Influenza is an acute disease with a rapid onset and pronounced symptoms. After the influenza virus invades a person’s body, an incubation period of one to two days passes before symptoms appear. Classic symptoms include sore throat, dry cough, stuffed or runny nose, chills, fever with temperatures as high as 39º C (103º F), aching muscles and joints, headache, loss of appetite, occasional nausea and vomiting, and fatigue. For most people flu symptoms begin to subside after two to three days and disappear in seven to ten days. However, coughing and fatigue may persist for two or more weeks.

There is no specific cure for influenza. Recommended treatment usually consists of bed rest and increased intake of nonalcoholic fluids until fever and other symptoms lessen in severity. Certain drugs have been found effective in lessening flu symptoms, but medical efforts against the disease focus chiefly on prevention by means of vaccines that create immunity.

Impetigo

2009-09-13T03:08:00.000-07:00

Impetigo, contagious skin disease, which commonly appears in young children and infants, although adults may be affected. Usually caused by group A streptococci or by staphylococci, it appears on such exposed parts of the skin as the face, hands, arms, and legs and is spread to adjacent areas by scratching. It also spreads readily to other people by direct contact or by contact with articles used by the infected person.

The infection produces pus-filled blisters that rupture and harden to form yellow crusts, from which fluid may ooze. Treatment consists of removing the crusts with soap and water and applying ointments containing antibiotics. When treated promptly, impetigo usually heals within a week without leaving scars.

Hypothermia

2009-09-13T03:03:00.000-07:00

Hypothermia, condition in which body temperature falls drastically as a result of exposure to cold. It may occur, for example, in hikers caught in a sudden cold front without sufficient clothing. The elderly can die from hypothermia at temperatures that would not harm younger persons. The condition involves a paradoxical response to sudden cold: the shutting off of blood flow to the body's surface. First aid may involve wrapping the victim in blankets (along with the rescuer, if necessary). Despite customary belief, alcohol causes loss of heat and should not be given. Treatment at a hospital involves slowly raising the body temperature by various means.

Hypothermia may also be induced for medical purposes. Reduction in body temperature causes a slowing of the metabolism. This is useful in certain types of surgery and to reduce bleeding in a particular part of the body.

Hodgkin’s Disease

2009-09-13T03:00:00.000-07:00

Hodgkin’s Disease or Hodgkin's Lymphoma, less severe form of two types of cancer that arise in the lymphatic system (network of small vessels that carry lymph, a fluid containing white blood cells of the immune system). The other form is non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Hodgkin's disease is characterized by usually painless but progressive enlargement of lymph nodes (or glands) and other lymphoid tissue.

Diagnosis of Hodgkin's disease is made with a biopsy (removal of a small tissue sample for examination under a microscope). Hodgkin's disease is primarily distinguished from non-Hodgkin's lymphoma by the presence of Reed-Sternberg cells, large cells that contain several nuclei. If the disease is diagnosed at an early stage and has not metastasized (spread to other areas of the body), radiation therapy is commonly used. With advanced cases, the doctor will usually prescribe chemotherapy (anti-cancer drugs) for approximately six months, often in combination with radiation therapy. For patients with disease resistant to conventional treatments, or for patients who have relapses (reappearance of symptoms after an apparent cure), doctors may try high-dose chemotherapy and bone-marrow transplants. The chemotherapy destroys all of the patient's unhealthy bone marrow in preparation for the transplantation of healthy bone marrow, so the body can once again produce healthy white blood cells. The healthy bone marrow is injected into the bloodstream and, if successful, the cells find their way to the bones and begin to grow

Heparin

2009-09-13T02:59:00.000-07:00

Heparin, substance produced by cells of the liver, lungs, and intestines that keeps blood from clotting. It normally inhibits the clotting of blood by interfering with the production of thrombin, an enzyme necessary for clot formation. Heparin obtained from animals is administered after surgery to reduce the risk of thrombosis, the formation of a blood clot in a blood vessel. It is also used after pulmonary embolism to ensure that no further clots form, as well as during kidney dialysis.

Ulcer

2009-09-13T02:45:00.000-07:00

Ulcer, shallow sore produced by the destruction of skin or mucous membrane. Skin ulcers may occur in association with a number of chronic illnesses, such as diabetes, kidney and heart ailments, varicose veins, syphilis, leprosy, tuberculosis, and cancer. Gastrointestinal ulcers occur with chronic gastritis, ulcerative colitis, and typhoid fever.

Peptic ulcers are ulcers of the stomach (gastric) or small intestine (duodenal). In addition to the pain caused by the ulcer itself, peptic ulcers give rise to such complications as hemorrhage from the erosion of a major blood vessel; perforation of the wall of the stomach or intestine, with resultant peritonitis; or obstruction of the gastrointestinal tract because of spasm or swelling in the area of the ulcer.

The direct cause of peptic ulcers is the destruction of the gastric or intestinal mucosal lining by hydrochloric acid, an acid normally present in the digestive juices of the stomach. Infection with the bacterium Helicobacter pylori is thought to play an important role in causing both gastric and duodenal ulcers. Injury of the gastric mucosal lining, and weakening of the mucous defenses such as by nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, are also responsible for gastric ulcer formation. Excess secretion of hydrochloric acid, genetic predisposition, cigarette smoking, and psychological stress are important contributing factors in duodenal ulcer formation and exacerbation.

Several different types of prescription drugs are used in the treatment of ulcers. Antacids may be ingested to neutralize the hydrochloric acid secretions. Drugs such as cimetidine and ranitidine block the action of histamine, the body chemical that triggers acid secretion, and have been shown to induce healing of ulcers in many patients. Omeprazole inhibits acid secretion by disabling the cellular pumps that pump acid into the stomach. Bismuth-containing compounds and antibiotics may be used to eradicate Helicobacter pylori infection, accelerating healing and reducing the rate of ulcer recurrence. Sucralfate forms a protective layer that enhances the mucosal lining of the stomach and intestines. Misoprostol is effective against gastric ulcers caused by nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Quitting smoking can also accelerate the healing process. Alcohol and caffeine should be avoided, although in general a bland diet is of no benefit. In extreme cases surgery may be required.

Hemorrhage

2009-09-13T02:38:00.000-07:00

Hemorrhage, excessive discharge of blood from blood vessels, caused by pathological condition of the vessels or by traumatic rupture of one or more vessels. Hemorrhage is a complication of many diseases. Peptic ulcer, for example, may cause hemorrhage by eroding a blood vessel. Stroke is sometimes due to hemorrhage in the brain. Hemophilia, a hereditary blood disease, is characterized by failure of the blood to coagulate. Sudden loss of more than about 1 liter (1 qt) of blood may lead to shock; unless the blood is replaced by transfusion, this shock can be fatal.

Bleeding normally stops through the process of coagulation, or clotting of the blood, and methods used to stop hemorrhage depend on stanching the flow of blood sufficiently for a clot to form. The hemorrhage is most effectively stopped by the application of pressure directly over the wound. Bleeding is also lessened by placing the body so that the wound is uppermost. A tourniquet should never be applied if there is another way to stop the bleeding, as application of a tourniquet increases the likelihood that amputation will be required.

Fibrin film and fibrin foam, plastics made from the blood protein fibrinogen, are extensively used in surgery. Fibrin foam is used in the form of a surgical sponge that rapidly stops bleeding by forming clots. Fibrin film is used to wrap nerves or tendons or as a membrane to cover the brain or other organs. Fibrin may be left without harm in the body, where it slowly dissolves.

Heartburn

2009-09-13T02:32:00.000-07:00

Heartburn, condition characterized by a burning feeling in the chest and a sour or bitter taste in the mouth. Heartburn typically develops when the acidic contents of the stomach flow back, or regurgitate, into the esophagus, the muscular tube that carries food from the throat to the stomach.

Heartburn is generally diagnosed with a complete description of the symptoms. In severe cases, a physician may order a barium X ray of the stomach and esophagus to rule out other problems. Alternatively, a physician may examine the esophagus with an endoscope, an instrument that can view the interior of the digestive tract, and take tissue and fluid samples.

Treatments for heartburn in mild cases, over-the-counter medications such as antacids can relieve occasional bouts. Chronic heartburn can be treated with medications that prevent the production of acid in the stomach.

Lifestyle changes, such as quitting smoking or losing weight, also can alleviate or prevent heartburn. Sleeping with the head of the bed elevated 15 cm (6 in) helps prevent the stomach's contents from flowing back into the esophagus. Going to bed on an empty stomach, and cutting back on consumption of alcohol, fat, chocolate, and peppermint also can prevent heartburn.

Pravastatin

2009-09-13T02:31:00.000-07:00

Pravastatin, drug used to lower cholesterol levels in the bloodstream in cases when dietary changes, weight loss, and exercise are ineffective in lowering cholesterol. Pravastatin works by blocking the liver enzyme that controls the manufacture of cholesterol. It is primarily effective against low-density lipoproteins (LDL), the form of cholesterol associated with increased risk of heart disease.

Available only by prescription, tablets of pravastatin are taken with or without food, usually at bedtime. The typical dosage ranges between 10 and 40 mg per day. Typically, cholesterol levels begin falling four to six weeks after the medication is started. Pravastatin is often prescribed in combination with a cholesterol-lowering diet.

Pregnant or nursing women, or children under the age of 18, should not take pravastatin. Patients with liver or kidney disease, muscular disorders, cataracts, or a history of alcohol abuse should use this drug with caution. Pravastatin can cause damage to the liver or muscle tissue, although problems can usually be detected early using well-established laboratory tests.

Possible side effects of this drug include dizziness, headache, skin rash, itchiness, stomach pain, nausea, diarrhea, constipation, gas, muscle cramps, or flulike symptoms. Pravastatin may be contraindicated for patients who are also taking the following drugs: cholestyramine, cimetidine, colestipol, cyclosporine, erythromycin, gemfibrozil, ketoconazole, niacin, warfarin, and immunosuppressive drugs.

Brand Name: Pravachol

Simvastatin

2009-09-13T02:29:00.000-07:00

Simvastatin, drug used to lower cholesterol levels. It is typically prescribed by a physician when dietary changes, weight loss, and exercise are not effective in reducing cholesterol. Simvastatin works by blocking the liver enzyme that controls the production of cholesterol. It is primarily effective against low-density lipoproteins (LDL), the form of cholesterol associated with increased risk of coronary heart disease.

Tablets are taken with or without food, usually at bedtime. The typical dosage ranges between 5 and 40 mg per day. Effectiveness is usually apparent after four to six weeks of treatment. Simvastatin is usually prescribed in combination with a cholesterol-lowering diet.

This drug should not be taken by patients with liver disease, by pregnant or nursing women, or by young people under the age of 20. Patients with impaired liver function, muscular disorders, cataracts, or a history of alcohol abuse should use this drug with caution.

Possible side effects of this drug include headache, stomach pain, nausea, diarrhea, constipation, gas, muscle weakness, or lowered blood pressure. Other side effects sometimes observed are muscle pain, skin rash, impaired vision, or hepatitis. Simvastatin may interact adversely with the drugs cholestyramine, cimetidine, clofibrate, cyclosporine, erythromycin, gemfibrozil, digoxin, ketoconazole, nicotinic acid, warfarin, and spironolactone.

Brand Name:Zocor

Lovastatin

2009-09-13T02:23:00.000-07:00

Lovastatin, drug used to reduce high blood cholesterol levels and slow the progression of coronary atherosclerosis, or hardening of the heart’s arteries. Lovastatin interferes with an enzyme in the liver responsible for making cholesterol, a fatlike substance that can both harden and clog the arteries. This drug reduces low-density lipoproteins (LDL), the type of cholesterol that increases the risk of coronary heart disease, and increases high-density lipoproteins (HDL), the type of cholesterol thought to reduce the risk of heart disease.

Available by prescription only, this drug is dispensed in 10-mg, 20-mg, and 40-mg tablets, which are taken orally. The initial adult dosage is 20 mg taken once a day, after which the dosage may be increased up to 40 mg twice a day. The maximum dosage should not exceed 80 mg daily. Effectiveness should be apparent within two weeks.

This drug should be taken with food, preferably with evening meals. It should not be used by persons who have had an allergic reaction to lovastatin; persons with active liver disease or active peptic ulcers; or pregnant or breast-feeding women. It should be used with caution by persons with reduced liver function and habitual users of alcohol. The safety and effectiveness of lovastatin for people under the age of 20 have not been established. Driving and other risk-related activities should be restricted if dizziness and blurred vision occur while taking this drug.

Common side effects of lovastatin include constipation, diarrhea, dizziness, gas, headache, heartburn, nausea, skin rash, and stomach pain. Less common side effects are blurred vision, fever, muscle aches or cramps, severe stomach pain, and unusual tiredness or weakness. Long-term use of this drug may result in abnormal liver function tests.

Lovastatin may interact adversely with certain drugs including clofibrate, cyclosporine, erythromycin and other macrolide antibiotics such as asithromycin and clarithromycin, gemfibrozil, niacin, and warfarin.

Brand Name:Mevacor

Coronary Heart Disease

2009-09-13T02:12:00.000-07:00

Coronary heart disease, the most common type of heart disease caused by atherosclerosis, the buildup of fatty material called plaque on the inside of the coronary arteries (see Arteriosclerosis). Over the course of many years, this plaque narrows the arteries so that less blood can flow through them and less oxygen reaches the heart muscle.

The most common symptom of coronary heart disease is angina pectoris, a squeezing chest pain that may radiate to the neck, jaw, back, and left arm. Angina pectoris is a signal that blood flow to the heart muscle falls short when extra work is required from the heart muscle. An attack of angina is typically triggered by exercise or other physical exertion, or by strong emotions. Coronary heart disease can also lead to a heart attack, which usually develops when a blood clot forms at the site of a plaque and severely reduces or completely stops the flow of blood to a part of the heart. In a heart attack, also known as myocardial infarction, part of the heart muscle dies because it is deprived of oxygen. This oxygen deprivation also causes the crushing chest pain characteristic of a heart attack. Other symptoms of a heart attack include nausea, vomiting, and profuse sweating.

One of the primary risk factors for coronary heart disease is the presence of a high level of a fatty substance called cholesterol in the bloodstream. High blood cholesterol is typically the result of a diet that is high in cholesterol and saturated fat, although some genetic disorders also cause the problem. Other risk factors include smoking, high blood pressure, diabetes mellitus, obesity, and a sedentary lifestyle.

Coronary heart disease cannot be cured, but it can often be controlled with a combination of lifestyle changes and medications. Patients with coronary heart disease are encouraged to quit smoking, exercise regularly, and eat a low-fat diet. Doctors may prescribe a drug such as lovastatin, simvastatin, or pravastatin to help lower blood cholesterol. A wide variety of medications can help relieve angina, including nitroglycerin, beta blockers, and calcium channel blockers. Doctors may recommend that some patients take a daily dose of aspirin, which helps prevent heart attacks by interfering with platelets, tiny blood cells that play a critical role in blood clotting.

Gingivitis

2009-09-13T02:08:00.000-07:00

Gingivitis, painless inflammation or degeneration of the gum tissue, or gingiva, considered the first stage of gum disease. The gum tissue between the teeth becomes swollen and uneven; the tissue at the gum line becomes darker; and gums bleed easily. In advanced cases, the mouth will develop a noticeably unpleasant odor.

Gingivitis is caused by the buildup of plaque, a film of bacteria that sticks to the teeth at the gum line. Toxins released from the bacteria irritate the gums, causing the gums to swell and bleed. This enables the bacteria to penetrate just below the gum line into an area known as the gingival sulcus. Warm, moist, and protected from the tongue and the chewing movement of the teeth, the gingival sulcus provides the perfect environment for bacteria to breed. Moreover, the delicate tissues of the sulcus are particularly vulnerable to the strong toxins produced by the bacteria. As the bacteria grow and continue to release toxins, they create a solid pocket of plaque beneath the gum line. This bacteria-filled pocket causes the gums to become more inflamed, which weakens the tissue, allowing even more plaque to be trapped in the expanding pocket.

Left untreated, gingivitis progresses to the next stage of gum disease known as periodontitis. In periodontitis, the inflammation from plaque not only damages the gums but also destroys the bones and ligaments that support the teeth. Eventually, the gums detach from the teeth and the teeth may begin to fall out.

The first step in treating gingivitis is scaling—a thorough professional cleaning of the teeth to remove any plaque. This is particularly important because plaque can harden into a mineral form called calculus or tartar, which can be removed only by professional instruments. In addition, dental structures that can interfere with plaque removal, such as broken fillings or bridges, may be fixed during regular dental cleanings. Most important, the patient will be instructed in proper home care, including regular brushing and effective flossing.

Spasm

2009-09-13T02:05:00.000-07:00

Spasm, involuntary and abnormal violent contraction of muscles or muscle tissue. Tonic spasm, or cramp, is characterized by an unusually prolonged and strong muscular contraction, with relaxation taking place slowly. The extreme example of tonic spasm is tetanus, in which the spasms are so violent and so enduring that they may paralyze breathing. In the other form of spasm, called clonic spasm, contractions of the affected muscles take place repeatedly, forcibly, and in quick succession, with equally sudden and frequent relaxations. The most typical examples of clonic spasm are epilepsy and convulsive hysteria.

The medicines used to counteract spasmodic muscular activity are termed antispasmodics. These are used in certain surgical procedures because they block transmission of nervous impulses to the muscles. Derivatives of hemlock and some 50 other plants have a relaxing effect on muscles.

Emphysema

2009-09-13T01:56:00.000-07:00

Emphysema, progressive respiratory disease characterized by coughing, shortness of breath, and wheezing, developing into extreme difficulty in breathing, and sometimes resulting in disability and death. Although the exact cause is unknown, bronchial spasm, infection, irritation, or a combination of the three seem to be contributory. The highest degree of occurrence is among heavy cigarette smokers, especially those exposed to polluted air. Children who suffer from bronchitis or asthma are also susceptible.

In the course of the disease the passages leading to the air sacs of the lungs become narrowed. Air is trapped in the sacs, and the tissues of the lungs lose their natural elasticity and undergo destructive changes. Symptoms akin to the common cold or asthmatic wheezing may result. As the disease progresses the volume of residual air trapped in the lungs increases, and the volume of each breath decreases. The lungs increase in size, and in severe cases the patient develops a characteristic “barrel chest.” The lungs become unable to supply enough oxygen to the body tissues. This reduction in oxygen intake causes the heart to pump faster; consequently, the heart becomes strained. Excessive carbon dioxide in the blood gives the patient a bluish skin color.

Elephantiasis

2009-09-13T01:52:00.000-07:00

Elephantiasis, disease of the lymphatic system, characterized by an enormous enlargement of the infected area. The hardened skin of this area resembles the hide of an elephant. The disease is usually the result of blockage of the lymphatic system by threadlike filarial worms, usually Wuchereria bancrofti. The parts of the body most frequently affected are the limbs and the genitals. The disease is treated with the antifilarial drug diethylcarbamazine (Hetrazan) and with surgery.

Dysentery

2009-09-13T01:50:00.000-07:00

Dysentery, acute or chronic disease of the large intestine of humans, characterized by frequent passage of small, watery stools, often containing blood and mucus, accompanied by severe abdominal cramps. Ulceration of the walls of the intestine may occur. Although many severe cases of diarrhea have been called dysentery, the word properly refers to a disease caused by either a specific amoeba, Entamoeba histolytica, or a bacillus that infects the colon.

Amoebic dysentery, caused by the parasite Entamoeba histolytica, is endemic in many tropical countries, but is attributable more to unsanitary conditions than to heat. It is most commonly spread by water or contaminated, uncooked food or from carriers. Flies may carry the cysts to spread the amoeba from the feces of infected persons to food. Various drugs, including metronidazole, ementine, and iodine-containing preparations, have been useful in treating severe cases of the disease.

Bacillary dysentery is caused by certain nonmotile bacteria of the genus Shigella. This dysentery is usually self-limiting and rarely manifests the more severe organ involvements characteristic of amoebic dysentery. Bacillary dysentery is spread by contaminated water, milk, and food. Feces from active cases and those from healthy carriers as well contain immense numbers of the disease-producing bacteria. Flies carry the bacteria on their feet or in their saliva and feces and deposit them on food; ants are also believed to spread the disease. Proper replacement of fluid is important in treating. Sulfonamides, tetracycline, and streptomycin were effective in curing acute cases until drug-resistant strains emerged. Chloramphenicol is sometimes used to treat these strains. Quinolones such as norfloxacin and ciprofloxacin are also effective against Shigella infection.

Drowning

2009-09-13T01:48:00.000-07:00

Drowning, death by suffocation due to the presence of water in the respiratory system.

Resuscitation by artificial respiration can prevent the death of a person with water in the lungs if instituted quickly. Because of the constant need of body tissues for oxygen, even a few minutes of suffocation can result in brain damage or death. The exception to this appears in persons who have been submerged in cold water. Some victims have been completely revived, without brain damage, after having been underwater for as long as a half hour. This phenomenon, the so-called diving reflex, has long been observed in sea mammals. Activated when the face is plunged into water below 21° C (70° F), it slows body processes so that oxygen-bearing blood is diverted to the heart and brain.

Doxycycline

2009-09-13T01:43:00.000-07:00

Doxycycline, antibiotic drug used to treat various types of bacterial infections including urinary tract infections, traveler’s diarrhea, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, trachoma, and syphilis. It is also sometimes used to treat early Lyme disease and to prevent the spread of malaria. Doxycycline belongs to a group of antibiotics known as tetracyclines. It works by interfering with the invading bacteria’s ability to form essential proteins, thereby halting their growth.

This drug is available by prescription in capsules, tablets, and liquid forms, which are taken orally, although one form of liquid is made for injection. Typical dosages range from 100 to 200 mg per day, taken in one or two doses, with a recommended maximum dose of 300 mg a day. Unless this drug causes stomach upset, it should be taken on an empty stomach (one hour before or two hours after a meal) with a full glass of water. Doxycycline usually relieves symptoms after 48 hours of treatment, but it should be taken for the entire prescribed length of time to avoid recurrence of infection.

Patients with liver disease and pregnant or breast-feeding women should not use this drug. It may be taken by children over the age of eight at a dosage based on body weight. Possible side effects include diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, skin rash, itching, light sensitivity, headache, facial swelling, chest pain, difficulty swallowing, or bulging forehead (in infants). Children may develop discolored teeth, especially with long-term use.

Doxycyline may interact adversely with antacids and other common gastrointestinal medications, birth control pills, barbiturates, blood-thinners, penicillin, phenytoin, sodium bicarbonate, and carbamazepine.

Brand Names:Doryx, Vibramycin, Vibra-Tabs, Bio-Tab

Psychoactive Drugs

2009-09-13T01:41:00.000-07:00

Psychoactive Drugs, chemical substances that alter mood, behavior, perception, or mental functioning. Throughout history, many cultures have found ways to alter consciousness through the ingestion of substances. In current professional practice, psychoactive substances known as psychotropic drugs have been developed to treat patients with severe mental illness.

Psychoactive substances exert their effects by modifying biochemical or physiological processes in the brain. The message system of nerve cells, or neurons, relies on both electrical and chemical transmission. Neurons rarely touch each other; the microscopic gap between one neuron and the next, called the synapse, is bridged by chemicals called neuroregulators, or neurotransmitters. Psychoactive drugs act by altering neurotransmitter function. The drugs can be divided into six major pharmacological classes based on their desired behavioral or psychological effect: alcohol, sedative-hypnotics, narcotic analgesics, stimulant-euphoriants, hallucinogens, and psychotropic agents.

Lysergic Acid Diethylamide

2009-09-13T01:38:00.000-07:00

Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD), potent hallucinogenic drug, also called a psychedelic (see Psychoactive Drugs), first synthesized from lysergic acid in Switzerland in 1938. Lysergic acid is a component of the mold of ergot, a fungus that forms on rye grain. The drug evokes dreamlike changes in mood and thought and alters the perception of time and space. It can also create a feeling of lack of self-control and extreme terror. Physical effects include drowsiness, dizziness, dilated pupils, numbness and tingling, weakness, tremors, and nausea.

Transient abnormal thinking induced by LSD, such as a sense of omnipotence or a state of acute paranoia, can result in dangerous behavior. Long-term adverse reactions such as persistent psychosis, prolonged depression, or faulty judgment have also been reported following LSD ingestion, but whether these are a direct result of ingestion is difficult to establish. Physiologically, LSD may cause chromosomal damage to white blood cells; no hard evidence has been found, however, that LSD causes genetic defects in the children of users.

Although LSD is not physiologically addicting, the drug's potent mind-altering effects can lead to chronic use.

The drug has been tried as a treatment for infantile autism, for alcoholism, and to accelerate psychotherapy, but no medical use has been established.

Cyst

2009-09-13T01:34:00.000-07:00

Cyst, in medicine, encapsulated sac, having no opening, and enclosing liquid or semisolid pathological or foreign material. The cyst wall, formed of fibrous connective tissue or of muscular fibers, has an inner surface lined with epithelium.

Retention cysts arising from distension of preexisting spaces result from the closure of a duct such as that of a sebaceous gland. An effusion of blood into a body cavity may result in an exudation cyst. Dermoid cysts are due to faulty development during the embryonic period. Adventitious cysts develop around foreign bodies or parasites introduced into deep tissue. When an inert body such as a metal or glass splinter is embedded in muscle tissue, it may become encysted. Another type of adventitious cyst is formed by the larvae of certain parasitic worms. Treatment of cysts is by surgical removal of the entire sac.

Crohn’s Disease

2009-09-13T01:30:00.000-07:00

Crohn’s Disease, sometimes called regional enteritis, a chronic inflammation of the intestines resulting from an extreme reaction of the immune system. The cause is unknown, although there is a genetic tendency to develop this disease and environmental factors are also thought to play a part. It may occur at any age but is most common in young adults, with most people first affected during their teens or twenties.

The symptoms of Crohn's disease include diarrhea, abdominal pain, weight loss, and fever. Anemia is also common due to bleeding from the intestine but such hemorrhaging is rare. The lining of the intestine becomes inflamed and ulcers form. Parts of the lining also become swollen, forming a characteristic “cobble-stoned” appearance. The muscle wall of the intestine becomes toughened and fibrous and some areas may become obstructed. Abnormal passages, called fistulae, may form when the inflammation spreads from the intestine through its wall and makes a hole, allowing partly digested or fecal material to pass from the inside of the intestine to another part of the body.

Treatment typically consists of controlling any dietary deficiencies caused by the disease and administering anti-inflammatory drugs called corticosteroids. Drugs to suppress the immune system may also be used to counteract abnormal allergic reactions or exaggerated response to an infectious agent.

Colorectal Cancer

2009-09-13T01:25:00.000-07:00

Colorectal Cancer, malignancy of the large intestine, the lower portion of the intestinal tract, which consists of the colon and rectum. Although colon cancer can occur in any segment of the colon, it is most common in the sigmoid colon, the section closest to the rectum.

Two simple tests can detect most colorectal tumors while they are still in an early, easy-to-treat stage. The first test is the digital rectal examination, during which the physician uses a gloved finger to gently check the smoothness of the rectal lining. The second test is the fecal occult blood test, in which a small sample of the patient’s feces is smeared on a card coated with a chemical called guaiac, which reacts with blood. The card is analyzed in a laboratory for occult (hidden) blood. A positive result does not necessarily indicate the presence of cancer. Although most colorectal cancers bleed, so do benign conditions such as hemorrhoids.

Another test is fiberoptic sigmoidoscopy, in which a flexible instrument is inserted into the lower intestinal tract through the anus. This instrument has light-conducting fibers that enable a physician to visually examine the interior of the colon and rectum. A biopsy can be performed simultaneously with a special biopsy tool attached to the end of the sigmoidoscope. The tissue is then examined under a microscope for signs of cancerous cells.

Early diagnosis is a major factor in surviving colorectal cancer. It is recommended that people aged 50 years and older have a fecal occult blood test and a sigmoidoscopy. If the tests do not show cancer, a fecal occult blood test should be performed annually and one of the following screening options should be followed: a sigmoidoscopy every five years, a colonoscopy every ten years, or a double contrast barium enema every five to ten years. A digital rectal examination should also be performed at the time of each screening sigmoidoscopy, colonoscopy, or barium enema examination.

The primary treatment for colorectal cancer is surgery to remove the tumor. The surgery may be combined with radiation, chemotherapy, or both. Using a combination of high-dose radiation and chemotherapy prior to surgery makes it possible to avoid permanent colostomies in many patients who previously would have needed this procedure. A colostomy is a surgical procedure to create an artificial opening through the abdominal wall to the exterior of the body for elimination of wastes into a plastic bag.

If cancer has spread from the colorectal area to the lymph nodes or liver, surgery or chemotherapy used in combination with three drugs—fluorouracil, leucovorin, and irinotecan—prolongs the lives of some patients.

Bulimia

2009-09-13T01:23:00.000-07:00

Bulimia, an eating disorder in which persistent overconcern with body weight and shape leads to repeated episodes of binging (consuming large amounts of food in a short time) associated with induced vomiting, use of laxatives, fasting, and/or excessive exercise to control weight.

Sometimes bulimic behavior is observed in cases of anorexia nervosa, or abnormal dieting, but bulimia in itself does not result in severe weight loss. It can, however, cause gastrointestinal problems and serious potassium depletion, and teeth may be damaged due to the acid nature of the regurgitated food. Bulimia usually develops during adolescence (most commonly among females) as a result of various psychological pressures, the most obvious one being the social emphasis on the desirability of slimness. Various modes of group and behavioral therapy are used in treating the disorder. Because patients with bulimia often suffer from depression as well, antidepressant drugs may be effective

Carcinoma

2009-09-13T01:14:00.000-07:00

Carcinoma, cancer that develops in the inner and outer surfaces of the body, such as the skin, the lining of the gastrointestinal tract, the inside of blood vessels, and the lungs. Like all cancers, carcinomas are malignant tumors in which cells grow uncontrollably, eventually crowding out normal cells. Also, like other cancers, carcinomas often spread to other areas of the body or metastasize via the blood or lymphatic system. Different kinds of carcinomas include breast cancer, cervical cancer, prostate cancer, lung cancer, colon cancer, liver cancer, and skin cancer.

Carcinoma is one of four types of cancer. The other types are cancer in muscle, connective, or bone tissue (sarcoma), cancer in blood forming, or vascular, tissues (lymphoma, leukemia, and myeloma), and cancer in nerve tissues (neuroma, glioma, and neuroblastoma).

Diagnostic techniques include endoscopy, pap test, blood tests, biopsy, and imaging techniques such as X rays, CT scans (X rays that give a three-dimensional image), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and ultrasound imaging.

The most common cancer treatments are surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy. Since chemotherapy kills some normal cells at the same time that it kills cancerous ones, it can cause many side effects, including hair loss, mouth sores, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and fatigue. People undergoing chemotherapy are especially susceptible to infection because the drugs severely limit the effectiveness of the immune system. Side effects of radiation may include hair loss, nausea, loss of appetite, and moderate to extreme fatigue.

Breast Cancer

2009-09-13T01:09:00.000-07:00

Breast Cancer, malignant tumor in the glandular tissues of the breast. Such tumors, also called carcinomas, form when the processes that control normal cell growth break down, enabling a single abnormal cell to multiply at a rapid rate. Carcinomas, which tend to destroy an increasing proportion of normal breast tissue over time, may spread, or metastasize, to other parts of the body.

Scientists do not understand exactly what causes breast cancer. Studies suggest that several categories of women are at increased risk for the disease: those with a long menstrual history (menstrual periods that started before age 12 and ended after age 50); those who never gave birth or who waited until after age 30 to have children; and those who have used birth control pills or hormone replacement therapy. Such risk factors, all of which relate to hormone-based life events, suggest that breast cancer is somehow affected by prolonged exposure to female sex hormones, such as estrogen.

X-ray examination of the breasts, a technique called mammography, can increase the odds for successful treatment by detecting tumors in an early stage, before they are large enough to be felt. Although studies provide conflicting results about the effectiveness of mammography in reducing breast cancer deaths, it is recommended that women over age 40 should have a mammogram every year. A mammogram cannot distinguish a benign tumor from a malignant tumor. The only way to make a positive diagnosis on a suspect lump in the breast is by having a biopsy, a minor surgical procedure in which the lump or part of the lump is removed and examined under a microscope for cancer cells.

Treatment of breast cancer depends on a woman’s age and health as well as the type, extent, and location of the tumor, and if the cancer has remained in the breast or has spread to other parts of the body. Treatment may include surgery, radiation, chemotherapy, hormone therapy, or a combination of treatments.

Biopsy

2009-09-13T01:06:00.000-07:00

Biopsy, surgical removal of living body tissue for study and diagnosis with a microscope. Biopsies are performed on organs to analyze the cause and nature of disease, and on tumors, or abnormal tissue growths, to determine if they are a type of cancer. For patients diagnosed with certain diseases, follow-up biopsies are used to study the effectiveness of a chosen course of medical treatment. Biopsies are vital in diagnosing and monitoring a wide range of illnesses, including muscular dystrophy, characterized by gradual wasting away of skeletal muscle, and Crohn’s disease, the chronic inflammation of the intestines.

An external biopsy specimen is taken by cutting or scraping a piece of tissue from an affected area of skin. When a sample is needed from an area well below the surface of the skin, the procedure is called internal biopsy, and viewing techniques such as ultrasound or computer axial tomography are often used to help the physician guide a hollow needle to the exact location.

In a procedure called aspiration biopsy, a needle is attached to a hypodermic syringe. A tissue sample is collected in the barrel of the syringe by using the suction that is created when the plunger of the syringe is pulled out. In a needle biopsy, the tissue sample is collected by rotating the needle, trapping a small but sufficient amount of tissue within the needle itself. In a punch biopsy, a sharp-edged instrument is used to recover a round piece of tissue from a specific depth below the skin.

Beriberi

2009-09-13T01:00:00.000-07:00

Beriberi, diet-deficiency disease caused by a lack of vitamin B1. Chronic deficiency is known to cause two distinct forms of beriberi. When associated with low calorie intake and inactivity, the disease tends to affect the nervous system. This form, termed dry beriberi, is characterized by neuritis in the lower extremities, often with muscle atrophy, poor coordination, and eventually paralysis. The second form of beriberi, known as wet beriberi, is usually associated with extremely high activity levels and a high carbohydrate intake. Symptoms of wet beriberi include sweating, warm skin, and elevated heart rate; heart failure and death may follow.

Beriberi is especially prevalent in those parts of the world where the diet consists mainly of polished rice. Recovery is complete in about 50 percent of cases when adequate amounts of vitamin B1 are restored to the diet.

Anorexia Nervosa

2009-09-13T00:57:00.000-07:00

Anorexia Nervosa, mental illness in which a person has an intense fear of gaining weight and a distorted perception of their weight and body shape. People with this illness believe themselves to be fat even when their weight is so low that their health is in danger. A person with anorexia nervosa severely restricts food intake and usually becomes extremely thin.

People with anorexia nervosa—who are sometimes known as anorectics or anorexics—have a preoccupation with food, weight, dieting, and body image. They are dissatisfied with their bodies, perceive themselves to be fat regardless of their actual weight, and are obsessed with becoming thin. Many are so focused on outward appearance that they have little awareness of internal sensations such as hunger and fullness. Anorexics usually undertake strict diets, severely restricting food intake and avoiding certain foods they deem taboo. They may also undergo intense, strenuous exercise regimens and weigh themselves frequently.

Addiction

2009-09-13T00:55:00.000-07:00

Addiction, habitual repetition of excessive behavior that a person is unable or unwilling to stop, despite its harmful consequences. People can be physically addicted to a drug, meaning they may suffer ill physical effects if they stop taking the drug. They also can be psychologically addicted to drugs, gambling, or other behaviors, meaning they feel overwhelmingly deprived if they attempt to stop.

Diarrhea

2008-10-18T05:06:00.000-07:00

Diarrhea, frequent passage of abnormally loose, watery stool. Diarrhea usually develops suddenly and may last from several hours to a few days. It is often accompanied by abdominal pains, low fever, nausea, and vomiting. If the attacks are severe or increasingly frequent, exhaustion and dehydration can result. In normal digestion the large intestine absorbs excess water from liquid food residues produced by earlier phases of the digestive process before excreting semisolid stools. When the mucous membrane lining the large intestine is irritated or inflamed, food residues move through the large intestine too quickly and the resulting stool is watery because the large intestine cannot absorb the excess water.

Diarrhea is not a disease. It is a symptom of numerous disorders, such as food poisoning from contaminated foods or beverages, infections by viruses and bacteria, or anxiety. Chronic diarrhea, which lasts weeks or months, may be caused by amoebic dysentery (intestinal infection), tumors, and other serious intestinal disorders such as Crohn’s disease, ulcerative colitis, or irritable bowel syndrome. Except in the case of irritable bowel syndrome, the stool may contain blood or pus.

The usual treatment for diarrhea consists of bed rest, drinking liquids to replace fluids and salts lost from the body, and eating soft foods. Dehydration is a serious concern in infants and the elderly. If the condition lasts more than a few days, a physician should be consulted.

Myxedema

2008-09-28T06:42:00.000-07:00

Myxedema (Greek myxa, “slime”; oidema, “swelling”), deficiency disease caused by insufficient or lack of production of hormone by the thyroid gland. Patients with myxedema complain of fatigue, lethargy, sleepiness, poor tolerance to cold, mental sluggishness, a tendency to gain weight, and generalized aches and pains. Their faces often look puffy and waxy. Their skin is dry and coarse; their hair is coarse, dry, and brittle, and it tends to fall out easily. Often patients also lose the outer portion of their eyebrows. These and other symptoms are caused by a low metabolic rate resulting from a deficiency of the thyroid hormone that stimulates metabolism. Myxedema differs from cretinism in that it develops after birth and produces less severe cerebral inadequacy. The disease may occur in several members of a single family. Any condition that decreases the elaboration of thyroid gland hormone may bring on myxedema. The disease is treated by the administration of thyroxine, other thyroid extracts, or a synthetic preparation such as levothyroxine.

Goiter

2008-09-28T06:39:00.000-07:00

Goiter, disease of the thyroid gland, characterized by an enlargement of the gland, visible externally as a swelling on the front of the neck. In simple goiter the basal metabolic rate is somewhat lowered, and in toxic goiter it is elevated.

Iodine deficiency in the body can cause goiter. Treatments include the ingestion of small doses of iodine, or, in extreme cases, the removal of the thyroid gland.

SIMPLE GOITER

This condition is characterized by an enlargement of the entire gland, or of one of its two lobes, caused by a deficiency of iodine in the diet. The disease is especially apt to appear in adolescence. Prevention requires taking small doses of iodine for long periods. Ingestion of iodine during pregnancy prevents development of the disease in the infant as well as in the mother. Public health measures, including the addition of iodine to water supplies and to table salt, have helped to reduce the incidence of simple goiter in certain areas. Iodine is most effective when administered to children who have the disease. Thyroidectomy, or surgical removal of the gland, may be necessary in cases in which the gland has become greatly enlarged.

TOXIC GOITER

This disease, also called exophthalmic goiter, hyperthyroidism, thyrotoxicosis, or Graves' disease, for the Irish physician Robert James Graves, is caused by an excess of thyroxine secretion. The cause of the excessive secretion is obscure. In some cases it may result from excessive stimulation by the pituitary gland. The symptoms of toxic goiter may include a rapid heartbeat, tremor, increased sweating, increased appetite, weight loss, weakness, and fatigue. Some patients have eye problems, such as staring or protrusion. Thiouracil and iodine are sometimes used in the treatment of toxic goiter, as is irradiation of the gland by radioactive iodine.

See also Myxedema.

Disorders of Human Teeth

2008-09-26T01:41:00.000-07:00

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The three main diseases of human teeth are tooth decay, also called dental caries; gum disease, or periodontal disease; and problems with tooth alignment, called malocclusions. Human teeth problems are treated or prevented by dentists, professionals who are specially trained to practice dentistry.

Tooth decay affects approximately 90 percent of all children by the time they are 14 years old. Tooth decay begins when bacteria are passed from mothers or caregivers to children between their first and second birthdays. When these bacteria are exposed to sugars commonly found in foods, the bacteria produce harmful acids that attack tooth enamel. Left unchecked, the acid eats holes in the enamel and forms cavities of tooth decay. Most tooth decay forms in the deep grooves on the chewing surfaces of the molars, called pits and fissures. Daily tooth brushing and proper dental care help prevent and reduce tooth decay. Dentists use preventive treatments to reduce the risk of tooth decay; clear plastic coatings painted on the teeth, called dental sealants, and applications of the mineral fluoride, which fortifies tooth enamel, are two such treatments.

Gum disease, or periodontal disease, is a progressive condition that worsens with age. Gum disease occurs when bacteria eat away at gum tissue, causing it to pull away from the teeth. This space between the tooth and gum, called a periodontal pocket, traps even more bacteria. Gum disease develops in two stages. Gingivitis, the early stage, causes red, swollen gums that bleed easily. Gingivitis can be eliminated through good oral hygiene and dental care. If not treated, gingivitis can progress to periodontitis, when bacteria attack the bone supporting the teeth. To treat periodontitis, dentists may have to surgically cut out the infected portion of the gum so the bacteria can be removed.

Malocclusions—teeth that are crowded, crooked, or out of alignment—make it more difficult to clean teeth, which can lead to other oral health problems such as tooth decay and gum disease. Many of these disorders start to appear between the ages of 6 and 12, when permanent teeth begin to erupt. Generally, malocclusions result when the jaw is too small to hold all of the teeth. Malocclusions are often genetic, tending to run in families. In other cases, dental injury or chronic thumb sucking may lead to poorly aligned teeth. Malocclusions are treated by dentists specially trained to correct them, called orthodontists.

Disorders of the Urinary System

2008-09-21T03:10:00.000-07:00

Urologists are physicians who specialize in treating urinary system disorders. One of the most serious disorders urologists treat is renal failure, which slows or stops the filtration of blood, causing toxic waste products to build up in the blood. Acute renal failure, which occurs suddenly, may be caused by bacterial infection, injury, shock, congestive heart failure, drug poisoning, or severe bleeding following surgery. Treatment may include drugs to address the underlying cause or to stimulate proper kidney function, blood transfusions, surgery, or, in some cases, kidney dialysis, in which the blood is mechanically filtered.

Chronic renal failure is a progressive deterioration of kidney function over a long period of time. It can be caused by diseases such as hypertension, diabetes, lupus erythematosus, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), and a form of cancer called myeloma. If diagnosed early the degenerative process can be slowed, but not reversed, by interventions that can range from simply restricting fluid intake and protein consumption (proteins are the main source of waste products) to taking drugs to address the underlying disease that is damaging the kidneys. Some patients may go on to develop end-stage renal failure, a life-threatening condition that requires long-term dialysis or a kidney transplant.

Urinary calculi, commonly known as kidney stones, result from the gradual buildup of crystallized salts and minerals in the urine. Kidney stones can cause intense pain if they obstruct a passageway that carries urine. Usually, the stones pass through and out of the urinary tract on their own. If they fail to pass out of the body, they can be removed surgically or broken up nonsurgically by an ultrasound technique called lithotripsy.

Bacterial infections, most frequently caused by the common intestinal bacterium Escherichia coli, can occur in any part of the urinary system. Antibiotics usually conquer the infection, although recurrent and chronic infections are not uncommon.

Among the many inherited and congenital disorders of the urinary system are polycystic renal diseases, in which numerous cysts form in the kidney, reducing the amount of functioning renal tissue. Kidney dialysis or transplantation usually is necessary to avoid kidney failure and death. Hypospadias is a birth defect in which the male urinary opening is misplaced on the penis; it may be under the head of the penis or as far away as the scrotum. Surgery before the child reaches 24 months can correct the defect, permitting normal urination and, later, sexual intercourse.

Human Nutrition

2008-09-20T18:02:00.000-07:00

Human Nutrition is learning how food affects the health and survival of the human body. Human beings require food to grow, reproduce, and maintain good health. Without food, our bodies could not stay warm, build or repair tissue, or maintain a heartbeat. Eating the right foods can help us avoid certain diseases or recover faster when illness occurs. These and other important functions are fueled by chemical substances in our food called nutrients. Nutrients are classified as carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, and water.

When we eat a meal, nutrients are released from food through digestion. Digestion begins in the mouth by the action of chewing and the chemical activity of saliva, a watery fluid that contains enzymes, certain proteins that help break down food. Further digestion occurs as food travels through the stomach and the small intestine, where digestive enzymes and acids liquefy food and muscle contractions push it along the digestive tract. Nutrients are absorbed from the inside of the small intestine into the bloodstream and carried to the sites in the body where they are needed. At these sites, several chemical reactions occur that ensure the growth and function of body tissues. The parts of foods that are not absorbed continue to move down the intestinal tract and are eliminated from the body as feces.

Once digested, carbohydrates, proteins, and fats provide the body with the energy it needs to maintain its many functions. Scientists measure this energy in kilocalories, the amount of energy needed to raise 1 kilogram of water 1 degree Celsius. In nutrition discussions, scientists use the term calorie instead of kilocalorie as the standard unit of measure in nutrition.

See: ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS

Skin Cancer

2008-09-20T18:01:00.006-07:00

Skin Cancer, malignancy in the skin, and the most common of all cancers. There are three main types of skin cancer: basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and melanoma. Basal cell carcinoma, the most common type, develops in the basal, or bottom, layer of the epidermis, the top layer of skin. Squamous cell carcinoma, the second most common type, develops in the upper layers of the epidermis.

The third type of skin cancer is melanoma. It develops in the melanocytes, or pigment cells, which are found throughout the basal layer. Melanoma is the most dangerous type of skin cancer and is responsible for about three-quarters of all skin cancer deaths.

Skin cancers can grow in any part of the skin, but approximately 90 percent develop in areas exposed to the sun, especially the face, neck, backs of the hands, and the scalps of bald men. Exposure to direct sunlight, especially during childhood, is the chief risk factor for skin cancer, and the greater the number of blistering sunburns a person has had, the greater the risk of developing skin cancer later in life. People with pale skin are at greatest risk for skin cancer, particularly if their skin burns or freckles easily.

SYMPTOMS AND DIAGNOSIS

Early detection and treatment are the keys to survival, especially for melanoma. Any of several skin changes may signal skin cancer and should be reported to a physician. These include any change in the size, shape, color, or texture of a mole or other darkly pigmented area; any mole that begins to itch or becomes tender; the development of a new mole or other growth, particularly if it feels hard; any mole or other growth that spontaneously or persistently bleeds; a skin ulcer that does not heal; and a black spot under a toenail or fingernail that extends beneath the cuticle. To confirm a diagnosis a physician may perform a biopsy, removing a small piece of the skin to examine under a microscope for the presence of cancerous cells.

TREATMENT

One of several surgical methods is used to remove the cancerous tissue. In some cases, the tissue is destroyed through the application of intense cold (cryosurgery). In advanced cases, surgical removal of the tissue coupled with radiation, chemotherapy, or both may be required.

A class of vitamin-based drugs called retinoids have been shown to reduce the number of basal cell and squamous cell carcinomas. However, the drugs can cause liver abnormalities, bone problems, fetal malformation, and other undesirable side effects.

Potential skin cancer treatment studies now underway include the use of the drugs interleukin-2 and interferon. A vaccine to reduce the recurrence of melanoma has shown promise in early tests.