Kids Research Express

Thalidomide, drug introduced in 1953, initially prescribed for its sedative properties and widely used by women to alleviate the nausea and vomiting common in the early stages of pregnancy. Thalidomide gained notoriety in 1961 when it was found to cause severe malformations in the growing fetus such as stunted development or the complete absence of limbs. More than 10,000 children were born with these disabling abnormalities before the drug was taken off the market. This disaster triggered more rigorous government regulations for drug testing. Today thalidomide is used in the treatment of leprosy, and experimentally in bone-marrow transplant patients and certain immune system disorders. HISTORY While its commercial distribution was halted, thalidomide continued to be used in experimental studies for a variety of diseases. A series of studies beginning in the mid-1960s showed that thalidomide was effective in treating a leprosy-related disorder, erythema nodosum leprosum (ENL).

Hallucinogen, any one of a large number of natural or synthetic psychoactive drugs that produce marked distortions of the senses and changes in perception. Hallucinogens generally alter the way time is perceived, making it appear to slow down. As the name suggests, hallucinogens may produce hallucinations , which are shape- and color-shifts in the appearance of the outside world or, in extreme cases, the replacement of external reality with imaginary beings and landscapes. Hallucinogens may also lead to bizarre and antisocial thoughts as well as to disorientation and confusion. The physiological basis of such experiences is not clear, but evidence suggests that hallucinogens work by inhibiting the availability of serotonin, an important neurotransmitter in the brain. The best-known and most potent hallucinogen is lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). Other hallucinogens include psilocybin, which comes from certain species of mushrooms , and mescaline, which is derived from a cactus calle

Cyclosporine, name of a drug approved for clinical use in the United States in 1983. The drug is important because of its ability to suppress the action of the body's immune system in rejecting foreign tissues following organ transplant operations (see Medical Transplantation ). Specifically, it blocks the activity of certain cells in the immune system called T cells, which, in combination with cells in the bloodstream, would otherwise tend to attack the tissues of the transplanted organs. Operations of this nature have proved successful a great percentage of the time when using cyclosporine. There is some risk of potentially severe kidney damage, however, so care must be taken in administering the drug. Cyclosporine occurs naturally in a certain Norwegian fungus, Tolypocladium inflatum.

Ciprofloxacin, drug used to treat bacterial infections in the lower respiratory tract, urinary tract, bones, joints, and skin. It is also used to treat serious ear infections, cholera, tuberculosis, infectious diarrhea, and infections associated with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Ciprofloxacin is prescribed after exposure to the bacteria that cause anthrax to reduce the incidence or progression of the disease. For maximum effectiveness against inhalation anthrax, the most dangerous form of the disease, the drug should be administered as soon as possible after exposure, even before symptoms appear. Ciprofloxacin works by blocking the action of gyrase, an enzyme needed by the invading bacteria for cell reproduction, thereby slowing or completely stopping bacterial growth. The drug is available by prescription in tablets, which are taken orally with or without food, and in a liquid, which is used in the form of eyedrops. Depending on the severity of infection, dosages for t

Cimetidine, drug used in the treatment of stomach and intestinal ulcers. It is used to treat reflux disease , a condition in which stomach acids back up into the esophagus causing heartburn , and to prevent upper abdominal bleeding. Cimetidine is also used to treat chronic hives , acne , herpes infections (including shingles), excessive hair growth in women, and an overactive parathyroid gland . Cimetidine blocks the action of histamine , a chemical in the body that stimulates acid secretions in the stomach. When histamine action is blocked, secretion of stomach acid decreases, allowing ulcers and other gastrointestinal ailments to heal. This drug is available by prescription in tablet and liquid form, both taken orally, and in a liquid form that is injected. Depending on the condition being treated, typical dosages range from 800 to 1200 mg per day. Cimetidine may be taken in a single dose at bedtime or divided into two or four smaller doses, usually taken immediately after a meal. R

Theophylline, prescription drug used to treat asthma , a chronic disease of the respiratory system. It is also used to treat asthmalike symptoms in patients with emphysema , chronic bronchitis , and pulmonary (lung) disease. Theophylline is sometimes used to treat breathing problems in infants at risk for sudden infant death s yndrome (SIDS). As a bronchodilator, the drug works by relaxing constricted muscles of the lung’s bronchi, the two branches of the trachea (windpipe) that lead to the lungs. It also opens blood vessels in the lungs, improving circulation. Theophylline is available in capsule, tablet, and liquid form. All are taken orally, usually with food to prevent stomach irritation. Dosage in children under the age of 16 is based on body weight. Adult dosages usually start at 200 mg taken twice a day, which may be increased if needed. The maximum adult dose is 900 mg per day. Effectiveness is usually apparent within 48 to 72 hours. Patients with peptic ulcers, seizure disorde

Bronchodilator, any of a group of drugs that expand the air passages (bronchial tubes) of the lungs . Bronchodilators are used to treat asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, and other diseases that affect the lungs. They relieve symptoms such as wheezing, shortness of breath, and coughing, and restore the patient’s ability to breathe comfortably. Bronchodilators work in various ways. Some, such as albuterol, affect the sympathetic nervous system, dilating the walls of the bronchial tubes. Others, such as theophylline, interfere with the action of certain enzymes or cells within the lungs, relaxing the constricted muscles of the airway. Many bronchodilators are inhaled through the mouth, especially those that provide immediate relief from an asthma attack. Some are taken orally in tablet or liquid form while others are injected into the skin. Inhaled bronchodilators are often prescribed with a dosage of 1 or 2 inhalations up to 4 times per day. A typical tablet dosage is 2 to 4 mg taken 3 to

Astemizole, antihistamine drug that is used to treat hay fever and recurring hives . It works by blocking the action of histamine (a chemical released by the body during allergic reactions) that contributes to swelling and itching of the nose, eyes, and skin. Astemizole is available only by prescription. It comes in tablet form and is taken orally on an empty stomach (one hour before or two hours after a meal). The typical dosage for adults and children over age 12 is 10 mg once a day. It has not been proven safe for children under age 12. The drug starts to be effective within one hour of treatment. Astemizole is often prescribed for use over several weeks. It helps control the appearance of hives and hay fever symptoms but does not provide immediate relief. Patients should not take more than a single, prescribed dose—even if symptoms are severe or a dose was missed—because overdose reactions are severe and may include fainting, irregular heartbeat, seizures, or cardiac arrest. Pos

Fexofenadine, prescription drug used primarily to treat hay fever , also effective against hives and cold symptoms. As an antihistamine, fexofenadine works by blocking the action of histamine, a chemical released during allergic reactions that contributes to swelling and itching of mucous membranes in the nose, eyes, and throat. Tablets of fexofenadine are taken orally, preferably with food to avoid stomach irritation. The typical dose is 60 mg taken twice a day. Effectiveness is usually apparent within one hour. Fexofenadine should be used with caution in patients with hypertension, diabetes mellitus, ischemic heart disease, increased intraocular pressure, hyperthyroidism, renal impairment, or prostatic hypertrophy. This drug should not be used by breast-feeding women or children under the age of 12. Its safety for use during pregnancy has not been determined. Possible side effects include headache, insomnia, cold or flu, nausea, fatigue, indigestion, and menstrual pain. Unlike many

Beclomethasone Dipropionate, steroid drug used to treat breathing problems associated with such disorders as hay fever and asthma . It is especially effective following the surgical removal of polyps (tumorous cell masses) in the nose. Beclomethasone dipropionate works by keeping open the bronchial tubes that lead into the lungs and by reducing inflammation in the tissues of the respiratory tract. This drug is available by prescription as a nasal spray or as an oral inhalant. It is usually prescribed for adults in doses of two oral inhalations—or one to two nasal sprays—up to four times a day. More severe conditions may require heavier dosages, although the inhalant form should not be used more than 20 times in one day. Children six years old and older can use this drug, although prescribed dosages are usually smaller with ten inhalations per day as the maximum. The drug may take effect within three days but may take as long as two weeks after beginning treatment. Unlike many inhalan

Antihistamine is any drug that blocks the action of histamine . Antihistamines are used primarily to control symptoms of allergic conditions such as hay fever . They alleviate runny nose and sneezing and, to a lesser extent, minimize conjunctivitis and breathing difficulties. Antihistamines can also alleviate itching and rash caused by food allergy. Chemically, antihistamines comprise several classes, and a person who does not obtain relief from one type may benefit from another. Side effects of these drugs can include drowsiness, loss of concentration, and dizziness. People taking antihistamines should not drink alcoholic beverages or perform tasks requiring mental alertness, such as driving. A few antihistamines, such as terfenadine and astemizole, are nonsedating. Although antihistamines are included in many over-the-counter cold remedies, their usefulness in such preparations is questionable. Antihistamines may relieve symptoms of allergy accompanying a cold, or they may have an

Barbiturate, any of an important group of drugs that depress brain function; they are derived from barbituric acid (C4H4N2O3), a combination of urea and malonic acid. Depending on the dosage or formulation, barbiturates have a sedative (tranquilizing), hypnotic (sleep-inducing), anticonvulsant, or anesthetic effect. Very short-acting barbiturates such as thiopental are injected intravenously to induce rapid anesthesia before surgery. Phenobarbital, a long-acting barbiturate, is prescribed with other medications to prevent epileptic seizures. Other barbituric-acid derivatives, such as secobarbital, were used as antianxiety medications until the development of the tranquilizer ; they are still in use for the short-term treatment of insomnia, although tranquilizers are more suitable sleep inducers. Barbiturates are common drugs of abuse. Taken orally or intravenously, they produce symptoms similar to drunkenness: loss of inhibition, boisterous or violent behavior, muscle incoordination, d

Beta Blocker, any of a group of drugs used to treat various disorders associated with the circulatory system . These disorders include high blood pressure (hypertension), angina pectoris (chest pains caused by reduced oxygen flow to the heart muscle), irregular heartbeat, and migraine headache. Beta blockers are also effective in treating glaucoma, an eye disorder characterized by excessive pressure within the eye. Properly known as beta-adrenergic blocking drugs, these drugs interfere with actions of the sympathetic nervous system, which controls involuntary muscle movement. They slow the heart rate, relax pressure in blood vessel walls, and decrease the force of heart contractions. In the eye they reduce the formation of excess fluid. Specific beta blockers include timolol, atenolol, and metoprolol. Beta blockers are prescription drugs available as tablets taken in one or more doses ranging from 2.5 to 1200 mg per day, depending on the drug. Eye drops are administered as a single dro

Triamcinolone, steroid drug used to treat breathing problems associated with such disorders as hay fever and asthma . Triamcinolone works by keeping open the bronchial tubes (the two divisions of the windpipe leading into the lungs) and reducing inflammation in the mucous tissues of the respiratory tract. It is also effective in treating inflamed areas of the skin as well as growths (polyps) inside the nose. This drug is available by prescription only in several forms, including an oral inhalant, tablets, cream and ointment forms applied topically, and a liquid form that is injected. Triamcinolone is usually prescribed for adults in 2 inhalations, two to three times a day, with a maximum of 16 inhalations per day. The tablet dosage ranges from 4 to 48 mg per day. Tablets may be taken with food to avoid stomach upset. Children 6 to 12 years old can use this drug, although prescribed dosages are usually smaller. Effectiveness is typically apparent within one to two weeks of treatment. T

Prednisone, drug used to treat a variety of ailments including arthritis , asthma , tuberculosis , ulcerative colitis (inflamed colon), certain cancers, multiple sclerosis, skin diseases, and severe allergic reactions. Prednisone is also used to prevent rejection of transplanted organs. An anti-inflammatory drug known as a steroid , prednisone works by suppressing the action of certain white blood cells in the immune system. Prednisone is available only by prescription. It is taken orally in tablet or liquid form, usually with food to avoid stomach upset. Dosages vary from 5 to 60 mg per day, although some acute conditions may be treated with up to 200 mg per day. Prednisone’s effectiveness is usually apparent after four to ten days of treatment. It is usually discontinued gradually, with smaller and smaller doses until the end of treatment. Patients with widespread fungus infections, peptic ulcer disease, active tuberculosis, or an eye infection caused by the herpes simplex virus shou

Methylprednisolone, steroid drug used in the treatment of various inflammatory and allergic disorders. It reduces swelling, redness, itching, and allergic reactions by blocking some of the body’s normal immune system defenses. It is most commonly used to manage serious skin disorders such as dermatitis, eczema, and psoriasis; and to treat asthma; inflammation of the small intestine (enteritis); multiple sclerosis; lupus erythematous; ulcerative colitis; and major rheumatic disorders like bursitis, tendinitis, and most forms of arthritis. It is also used to treat anemia, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), acute nonlymphoblastic leukemia, Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in people with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), bone cysts in children, croup, and severe vomiting caused by chemotherapy. This drug is available by prescription only. It comes in a tablet, an injectable liquid, an ointment, and an enema. For tablets, the usual adult dosage is 4 to 48 mg daily, taken o

Oxaprozin, drug used for relief of pain and inflammation associated with rheumatoid arthritis , osteoarthritis , gout , and tendinitis. Oxaprozin blocks the production of chemicals called prostaglandins, which may trigger pain and inflammation. This drug is available by prescription only and comes in 600-mg caplets that are taken orally. The typical adult dosage is 1200 mg per day determined individually on the basis of weight and health. Pain is usually relieved after a single dose, but reduction of inflammation may require regular doses for several days. One to two weeks of continual usage determines the general effectiveness of the drug, although the full effect may not be apparent during the first six weeks of regular use. Oxaprozin should be taken with a full glass of water or milk, with meals, or with a prescribed antacid . To avoid adverse side effects, the lowest effective daily dose should be taken. Persons who have had a previous allergic reaction to oxaprozin or to any other

Diclofenac Sodium, drug used to treat various forms of arthritis . It is also sometimes used to relieve menstrual pain (see Menstruation ). An anti-inflammatory analgesic , this drug works by reducing concentrations of certain chemicals in tissue that produce inflammation and pain, thereby relieving the swelling and stiffness commonly associated with arthritis. Diclofenac sodium must be prescribed by a doctor. Tablets are taken orally two to five times per day. The total daily dosage usually ranges from 100 to 200 mg, with 225 mg being the recommended maximum. Tablets should be taken with a full glass of water and, if stomach upset occurs, with food. Not lying down for 20 to 30 minutes after taking the drug can also help prevent stomach upset. Effectiveness of this drug may not be seen for one to two weeks after beginning treatment. Patients who experience allergic reactions to aspirin or related medications should not take diclofenac sodium. Patients with kidney or liver problems, ulc

Naproxen, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug used for relief of pain and inflammation associated with adult and adolescent rheumatoid arthritis , osteoarthritis , ankylosing spondylitis (chronic inflammation of the spine), bursitis, tendinitis, and gout . It is also used in treating headaches and menstrual cramps. Naproxen is an effective painkiller after childbirth, orthopedic surgery, dental treatment, and for strains and sprains. It blocks the production of certain chemicals called prostaglandins that may trigger pain and inflammation. This drug may be purchased over the counter in tablets of 225 mg. It is available in larger dosages—by prescription only—in tablets of 250 mg, 375 mg, and 500 mg; in sustained-release tablets of 375 mg and 500 mg; and as a liquid, administered orally in 125 mg per 5-ml spoonful. The typical adult oral dosage for rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, and ankylosing spondylitis is 200 to 500 mg twice a day. For gout, the initial adult dosage is 750 mg

Nabumetone, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug used for relief of pain and inflammation associated with osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis . Nabumetone blocks the production of certain chemicals in the body called prostaglandins that may trigger pain and inflammation. This drug is available by prescription only. It comes in 500-mg and 700-mg tablets, taken orally. The typical, initial adult dosage is 1000 mg per day. This dosage may be increased as needed and tolerated to 1500 to 2000 mg per day, taken once a day or in divided doses. Relief of symptoms may be felt within one hour, but it may take up to two weeks to feel the full effect of the drug. Nabumetone should be taken on a regular schedule, without missing doses. It should be taken with food to increase absorption of the drug and to prevent stomach irritation. To minimize adverse side effects, the lowest effective daily dose should be used. Nabumetone should not be used by persons who have had a previous allergic reaction